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2023年12月16日土曜日

日本史32 Japanese history 32

田沼時代と寛政の改革

Tanuma period and Kansei reforms

田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)Tanuma Okitsugu17191788

松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobu17581829


九五式戦闘機(きゅうごしき・せんとうき)Type 95 Fighter


九五式戦闘機(きゅうごしき・せんとうき)Type 95 Fighter


九五式戦闘機(きゅうごしき・せんとうき)Type 95 Fighterは、日本陸軍Imperial Japanese Army戦闘機Fighter aircraft

The Type 95 fighter is a fighter aircraft of the Japanese Army.

連合軍Allied forcesコードネームCode nameペリーPerry

The Allied code name is Perry.


九五式戦闘機(きゅうごしき・せんとうき)Type 95 Fighter


開発・製造は川崎航空機(かわさき・こうくうき)Kawasaki Aircraft Industries

Developed and manufactured by Kawasaki Aircraft.

陸軍最後の複葉戦闘機Biplane fighterであり、主に日中戦争Second Sino-Japanese War支那事変China Incident)初期early stages主力戦闘機Main Fighter aircraftとして使用された。

It was the Army's last biplane fighter, and was primarily used as the main fighter in the early days of the Sino-Japanese War (China Incident).


ポリカールポフI-15戦闘機Polikarpov I-15


無類の運動性を利用して日中戦争Second Sino-Japanese Warの初期においては中国国民党軍Republic of China Armed Forcesソ連製複葉戦闘機Soviet biplane fighterポリカールポフI-15戦闘機Polikarpov I-15などを圧倒する活躍をみせた。

Taking advantage of its unparalleled maneuverability, it was able to overwhelm the Soviet-made biplane Polikarpov I-15 fighter of the Chinese Kuomintang Army in the early stages of the Sino-Japanese War.


ソ連製ポリカールポフI-16戦闘機Soviet Polikarpov I-16 fighter


九七式戦闘機(きゅうななしき・せんとうき)Type 97 Fighter


九七式戦闘機(きゅうななしき・せんとうき)Type 97 Fighter


しかしノモンハン事件Nomonhan Incidentの頃になると、ソ連製ポリカールポフI-16戦闘機Soviet Polikarpov I-16 fighterのような単葉機Monoplane相手には劣勢となり、後継機Successorである九七式戦闘機(きゅうななしき・せんとうき)Type 97 Fighterと交替して第一線を退いた。

However, around the time of the Nomonhan Incident, it was outnumbered by monoplanes such as the Soviet-made Polikarpov I-16 fighter, and was replaced by its successor, the Type 97 fighter, and retired from the front lines.


田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)Tanuma Okitsugu17191788


9 Chapter 9

幕藩体制の動揺

Unrest in the Shogunate system

2 Section 2

田沼時代と寛政の改革

Tanuma period and Kansei reforms

 

徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)Tokugawa Yoshimune(在職1716年~1745年)

8代将軍the 8th shogun


徳川家重(とくがわ・いえしげ)Tokugawa Ieshige(在職17451760

9代将軍the 9th shogun

徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)Tokugawa Yoshimuneson


田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)

Tanuma Okitsugu

1745年(延享2年)、徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)Tokugawa Yoshimune(在職1716年~1745年)はそのson徳川家重(とくがわ・いえしげ)Tokugawa Ieshige(在職17451760)に将軍職the post of shogunを譲り、後見役his guardianとして政治took charge of politicsをみた。

In 1745, Tokugawa Yoshimune (in office 1716-1745) handed over the post of shogun to his son Tokugawa Ieshige (in office 1745-1760), who took charge of politics as his guardian.


大岡忠光(おおおか・ただみつ)Ooka Tadamitsu17091760


しかし徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)Tokugawa Yoshimune死ぬthe deathと(1751年)、徳川家重(とくがわ・いえしげ)Tokugawa Ieshige側用人(そばようにん)Sobayonin大岡忠光(おおおか・ただみつ)Ooka Tadamitsu17091760)が重用important positionされ、側用人政治(そばようにん・せいじ)Sobayonin Politics復活revivedして幕政腐敗the corruption of the shogunate government端緒を開いたopened the beginning

However, after the death of Tokugawa Yoshimune (1751), Tadamitsu Ooka (1709-1760), a soba yonin of Tokugawa Ieshige, was given an important position, and the side yonin politics became important. was revived and opened the beginning of the corruption of the shogunate government.


徳川家治(とくがわ・いえはる)Tokugawa Ieharu(在職17601786

10代将軍the 10th shogun

徳川家重(とくがわ・いえしげ)Tokugawa Ieshigeson


田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)Tanuma Okitsugu17191788


徳川家重(とくがわ・いえしげ)Tokugawa Ieshigeson10代将軍the 10th shogun徳川家治(とくがわ・いえはる)Tokugawa Ieharu(在職17601786)の時代the eraにも、側用人(そばようにん)Sobayonin田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)Tanuma Okitsugu17191788)が重用an important postされ、老中(ろうじゅう)RōjūElder)にまでなって実権powerを握った。

Even in the era of Tokugawa Ieharu (1760-1786), the son of Tokugawa Ieshige, the 10th shogun, Tanuma Okitsugu, a side servant. Tanuma Okitsugu (1719-1788) was given an important post and held power until he became an old man.


田沼意行(たぬま・おきゆき)Tanuma Okiyuki


紀伊藩(きいはん)the Kii domain足軽(あしがる)Ashigaruであった田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)Tanuma Okitsugufather田沼意行(たぬま・おきゆき)Tanuma Okiyukiは、徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)Tokugawa Yoshimuneに従って江戸Edoに出て、600石の旗本(はたもと)Hatamotoとなった。

Motoyuki Tanuma, father of Tanuma Okitsugu, who was an ashigaru of the Kii clan, followed Tokugawa Yoshimune to Edo and became a hatamoto of 600 koku. became.


相良藩(さがら・はん)Sagara Domain


田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)Tanuma Okitsugu徳川家重(とくがわ・いえしげ)Tokugawa Ieshige小姓(こしょう)Koshōから側衆(そばしゅう)a side servantに、次いで1万石の大名(だいみょう)Daimyoに列せられ、徳川家治(とくがわ・いえはる)Tokugawa Ieharu側用人(そばようにん)Sobayonin1767年)・老中格(ろうじゅうかく)Rōjū Kaku1769年)を歴任して、1772年(安永1年)老中(ろうじゅう)RōjūElder)に就任し、遠州(えんしゅう)Enshū遠江(とおとうみ)Tōtōmi Province静岡県(しずおかけん)Shizuoka Prefecture西部)相良藩(さがら・はん)Sagara Domain 53千石の大名(だいみょう)Daimyoとなった。

Tanuma Okitsugu was promoted from a page to Ieshige Tokugawa to a side servant, then to a daimyo with 10,000 koku, and then to a side servant to Ieharu Tokugawa. After successively serving as Soba Yonin (1767) and Rochu Kaku (1769), he became Roju in 1772 (Yasun'ei 1), and became a feudal lord in Enshu Sagara with a wealth of 53,000 koku. became.


田沼意知(たぬま・おきとも)Tanuma Okitomo17491784


そのson田沼意知(たぬま・おきとも)Tanuma Okitomo17491784)も若年寄(わかどしより)Wakadoshiyori1783年)となり、父子father and son相並んで政治にあたった。

His son Okitomo Tanuma (1749-1784) also became Wakayori (1783), and both father and son were involved in politics.


印旛沼干拓(いんばぬま・かんたく)Inbanuma Kantaku


大坂商人Osaka merchant天王寺屋藤八郎(てんのうじや・とうはちろう)Tennojiya Tohachiro江戸商人Edo merchant長谷川新五郎(はせがわ・しんごろう)Hasegawa Shingoroの出資で、下総(しもうさ)Shimousa Province千葉県Chiba Prefecture北部)印旛沼(いんばぬま)Lake Inba手賀沼(てがぬま)Lake Tega(ともに利根川とねがわTone Riverの下流域)の干拓(かんたく)事業reclamation projectを計画した。

With investment from Osaka merchant Tohachiro Tennojiya and Edo merchant Shingoro Hasegawa, a reclamation project was planned for Lake Inbanuma and Lake Teganuma in Shimousa (both located in the lower reaches of the Tone River).

しかし、印旛沼干拓(いんばぬま・かんたく)Inbanuma Kantaku田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)Tanuma Okitsugu失脚fall中絶abandonedし、手賀沼(てがぬま)Lake Tega1786年(天明6年)完成はしたが、同年の利根川大洪水(とねがわ・だいこうずい)the Tone River flood破壊・流出destroyed and washed awayした。

However, Inbanuma Kantaku was abandoned due to the fall of Tanuma Okitsugu, and Teganuma was completed in 1786 (Tenmei 6), but It was destroyed and washed away by the Tone River flood in the same year.


工藤平助(くどう・へいすけ)Kudo Heisuke17341800


仙台藩(せんだい・はん)Sendai Domaindoctor工藤平助(くどう・へいすけ)Kudo Heisuke17341800)は、1783年(天明3年)『赤蝦夷風説考(あかえぞ・ふうせつこう)Akaezo Fusetsuko』を著し、ロシア人の南下Russians' migration southwardとその密貿易smugglingを述べ、蝦夷地(えぞち)開拓developing Ezo land必要necessity日露貿易Japan-Russia trade得策the benefitsを主張した。

Heisuke Kudo (1734-1800), a doctor of the Sendai clan, wrote "Akaezo Fusetsuko" in 1783 (Tenmei 3), which described Russians' migration southward and their smuggling. He advocated the necessity of developing Ezo land and the benefits of Japan-Russia trade.

当時、ロシア人Russiansのことを「赤蝦夷(あかえぞ)Akaezo」とか「赤人Akajin」と呼んでいた。

At that time, Russians were called ``Akaezo'' or ``Akajin.''


最上徳内(もがみ・とくない)Mogami Tokunai17551836


この意見を採用adopted this opinionした田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)Tanuma Okitsuguは、ロシアとの交易trade with Russiaを企て、出羽の最上徳内(もがみ・とくない)Mogami Tokunai17551836)らを派遣dispatchedして蝦夷地(えぞち)Ezochi北海道Hokkaido千島Chishima樺太Sakhalin)の調査を行わせた。

Tanuma Okitsugu, who adopted this opinion, plotted trade with Russia and dispatched Mogami Tokunai (1755-1836) and others from Dewa to Ezochi. Ezochi) (Hokkaido, Chishima, Sakhalin).


運上金(うんじょうきん)unjokin冥加金(みょうがきん)myogakin


また、特定の商人certain merchants専売(せんばい)monopolyを許し、その代償として運上金(うんじょうきん)unjokin冥加金(みょうがきん)myogakinを納めさせた。

In addition, he allowed certain merchants to monopolize their products, and made them pay unjokin and myogakin in return.


新井白石(あらい・はくせき)Arai Hakuseki1657年~1725年)


新井白石(あらい・はくせき)Arai Hakuseki定めた海舶互市新例(かいはく・ごし・しんれい)Kaihaku Goshi Shinrei長崎新令(ながさきしんれい)Nagasaki Shinrei正徳新令(しょうとくしんれい)Shōtoku Shinrei)を緩和relaxedし、貿易の促進promote tradeをはかった。

In order to promote trade, he relaxed the new rules for the mutual trading of ships (Nagasaki new ordinance and Shotoku new ordinance) established by Arai Hakuseki.


田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)Tanuma Okitsugu17191788


積極的に商業資本を利用actively utilizing commercial capitalしたことから、特権的な御用商人となった大商人の力the power of large merchantsは飛躍的に伸びたが、一方で商業高利貸資本commercial usury capitalの農村侵入が進み、農民farmers在郷商人local merchants圧迫putting pressureして窮状plight深刻direとなっていた。

By actively utilizing commercial capital, the power of large merchants who became privileged merchants increased dramatically, but at the same time, commercial usury capital continued to invade rural areas, putting pressure on farmers and local merchants. The plight was dire.

また商業資本commercial capitalと結んだことで、幕府財政Shogunate finances安定stabilizing強化strengtheningには成功を収めたが、その反面、大商人large merchantsとの結びつきから賄賂(わいろ)briberyが公然と行われ、政治politics腐敗Corruption堕落Fallを招き、士風の退廃decadence of the samuraiが目立った。

Also, by linking with commercial capital, the Shogunate succeeded in stabilizing and strengthening its finances, but on the other hand, bribery was openly carried out due to ties with large merchants, leading to corruption and corruption of politics. The decadence of the samurai was noticeable.


明和の大火(めいわ・の・たいか)Great Fire of Meiwa


天明大噴火(てんめい・だいふんか)Tenmei eruption

浅間山の噴火(あさまやま・の・ふんか)the eruption of Mount Asama


天明大噴火(てんめい・だいふんか)Tenmei eruption

浅間山の噴火(あさまやま・の・ふんか)the eruption of Mount Asama


天明の大飢饉(てんめい・の・だいききん)Great Tenmei famine


農民収奪の強化the intensification of farmers' expropriationに追い打ちをかけるように、各地で天災地変natural disastersが相次いで起こった。

As if to add insult to injury to the intensification of farmers' expropriation, natural disasters occurred one after another in various places.

1772年(明和9年)には、江戸Edo行人坂の大火(ぎょうにんざか・の・たいか)a great fire at Gyoninzaka明和の大火(めいわ・の・たいか)Great Fire of Meiwa)、風水害による凶作bad crops due to wind and flood damage1783年(天明3年)には浅間山の噴火(あさまやま・の・ふんか)the eruption of Mount Asama天明大噴火(てんめい・だいふんか)Tenmei eruption)や冷害(れいがい)damage from cold weatherが続き、数年間にわたり東北地方(とうほくちほう)Tōhoku regionをはじめ、全国across the countryに 数十万の餓死者hundreds of thousands of people starving to deathを出す惨状catastropheとなった(天明の大飢饉(てんめい・の・だいききん)Great Tenmei famine)。

In 1772 (Meiwa 9), there was a great fire at Gyoninzaka in Edo, and bad crops due to wind and flood damage.In 1783 (Tenmei 3), the eruption of Mt. At first, it became a catastrophe that left hundreds of thousands of people starving to death across the country (the Great Tenmei Famine).

農民は土地を捨てて都市へ流入しFarmers abandoned their land and migrated to cities、あるいは、新生児を殺すculling newborn babies間引(まびき)Thinning悪習the bad practiceがひろがった。

Farmers abandoned their land and migrated to cities, and the bad practice of culling newborn babies became widespread.


百姓一揆(ひゃくしょう・いっき)peasant uprisings


また、各地で百姓一揆(ひゃくしょう・いっき)peasant uprisingsが激発し、天明(てんめい)年間だけduring the Tenmei era aloneでも100件を越すほどであった。

In addition, peasant uprisings broke out all over the country, and there were more than 100 peasant uprisings during the Tenmei era alone.


田沼意知(たぬま・おきとも)Tanuma Okitomo17491784


佐野政言(さの・まさこと)Sano Masakoto


このような社会混乱social turmoilのなかで、人々の不満people's dissatisfaction田沼父子(たぬま・ふし)Tanuma father and son集中focusedした。

Amidst this social turmoil, people's dissatisfaction focused on the Tanuma father and son.

1784年(天明4年)、田沼意知(たぬま・おきとも)Tanuma Okitomo殿中(でんちゅう)the palace旗本(はたもと)Hatamoto佐野政言(さの・まさこと)Sano Masakoto(のち「世直し大明神(よなおし・だいみょうじん)Yonaoshi Daimyojin」と称せられた)の私怨private grudgeから斬られて死cut to deathに、1786年(天明6年)には、田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)Tanuma Okitsugu老中(ろうじゅう)RōjūElder)を免ぜられて失脚expelled from the position of Roju and fell from graceした。

In 1784 (Tenmei 4), Okitamo Tanuma was cut to death in the palace due to a private grudge against Masakoto Sano (later known as 'Daimyojin'), and died in 1786 ( In the 6th year of Tenmei (Tenmei 6), Okitsugu Tanuma was also expelled from the position of Roju and fell from grace.


天明の打ちこわし(てんめい・の・うちこわし)Tenmei no Uchikoushi


1787年(天明7年)には、江戸Edo大坂Osakaをはじめ各地で大規模な打ちこわしlarge-scale demolition天明の打ちこわし(てんめい・の・うちこわし)Tenmei no Uchikoushi)が起こった。

The following year, 1787 (Tenmei 7), large-scale demolition (Tenmei no Uchikoushi) occurred in Edo, Osaka, and other areas.


徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)Tokugawa Yoshimune(在職1716年~1745年)

8代将軍the 8th shogun


享保の改革(きょうほう・の・かいかく)Kyōhō Reformsのあと、幕藩体制(ばくはん・たいせい)the shogunate system本格的な危機a full-scale crisis年貢増徴の限界limitations on annual tax increases都市問題urban problems農村構造の変化changes in rural structureなど)に直面する。

After the Kyoho Reforms, the shogunate system faced a full-scale crisis (limitations on annual tax increases, urban problems, changes in rural structure, etc.).


田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)Tanuma Okitsugu17191788


しかし田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)Tanuma Okitsugu現実的な政治家a realistic politicianとして殖産興業策measures to promote new industries商業資本commercial capital利用usingし大胆に対処dealt with the problemしたと積極的に評価positively evaluatedされる面もある。

However, Tanuma Okitsugu has been positively evaluated as a realistic politician who boldly dealt with the problem by using measures to promote new industries and commercial capital.


松浦静山(まつら・せいざん)Matsura Seizan


今まで、賄賂bribery士風頽廃corruptionが強調されてきているが、田沼意次(たぬま・おきつぐ)Tanuma Okitsugu悪評the bad reputationも、その多くは政敵his political opponent松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobuの政権下で生み出されたgeneratedものであり、権勢(けんせい)を実見・記録observed and recorded the powerしたという『甲子夜話(かっし・やわ)Kasshi Yawa』も、著者author松浦静山(まつら・せいざん)Matsura Seizan定信派the Sadanobu school最も近い人物the person closest toであった。

Until now, emphasis has been placed on bribery and corruption, but much of the bad reputation of Okitsugu Tanuma was generated under the administration of Sadanobu Matsudaira, his political opponent. Seizan Matsuura, the author of ``Koshi Yawa,'' which is said to have observed and recorded the power, was the person closest to the Teishin school.


徳川家治(とくがわ・いえはる)Tokugawa Ieharu(在職17601786

10代将軍the 10th shogun

徳川家重(とくがわ・いえしげ)Tokugawa Ieshigeson


徳川家斉(とくがわ・いえなり)Tokugawa Ienari(在職1787年~1837年)

11代将軍the 11th shogun

徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)の曾孫great-grandson


寛政の改革(かんせい・の・かいかく)

Kansei Reforms

10代将軍the 10th shogun徳川家治(とくがわ・いえはる)Tokugawa Ieharu(在職17601786)のthe death後、各地various places打ちこわしriotsが起こるなど騒然uproarとしたなかで、一橋家(ひとつばしけ)Hitotsubashi Houseから15歳の徳川家斉(とくがわ・いえなり)Tokugawa Ienari(在職1787年~1837年)が11代将軍the 11th shogunに就任した。

After the death of the 10th shogun, Ieharu Tokugawa (1760-1786), there was an uproar, with riots occurring in various places. ) became the 11th shogun.


田安宗武(たやす・むねたけ)Tayasu Munetake

徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)の次男second son


松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobu17581829

徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)Tokugawa Yoshimunegrandson


これとともに、田安宗武(たやす・むねたけ)Tayasu Munetakesonで、徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)Tokugawa Yoshimunegrandsonに当たる松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobu17581829)(白河藩(しらかわ・はん)Shirakawa Domain(現在の福島県白河市) 11万石藩主(はんしゅ)lord of the Domain)が老中首座the head of the Rojuとなり、翌1788年(天明8年)には、将軍補佐役an assistant to the shogunとなって幕政の改革reforming the shogunate governmentに当たった。

At the same time, Sadanobu Matsudaira (1758-1829), the son of Tayasu Munetake and the grandson of Tokugawa Yoshimune (lord of the Shirakawa domain with 110,000 koku of rice), became the head of the Roju. The following year, 1788, he became an assistant to the shogun and worked on reforming the shogunate government.


徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)Tokugawa Yoshimune(在職1716年~1745年)

8代将軍the 8th shogun


松平信明まつだいら・のぶあきら)Matsudaira Nobuakira


本多忠籌(ほんだ・ただかず)Honda Tadakazu


松平乗完(まつだいら・のりさだ)Matsudaira Norisada


松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobuは、享保の改革(きょうほう・の・かいかく)Kyōhō Reformsを模範とする復古政策a restoration policyを主眼とし、まず田沼派the Tanuma faction幕吏the shogunate officialsを一掃するとともに松平信明まつだいら・のぶあきら)・本多忠籌(ほんだ・ただかず)Honda Tadakazu松平乗完(まつだいら・のりさだ)Matsudaira Norisada有能気鋭の人材talented and up-and-coming personnelを登用し、商業資本commercial capitalとの結びつきを断ち切って田沼政治の腐敗浄化cleanse Tanuma's politics of corruptionに努めた。

Matsudaira Sadanobu focused on a restoration policy modeled on the Kyoho Reforms, and first of all, wiped out the shogunate officials of the Tanuma faction, as well as Nobuakira Matsudaira and Tadashi Honda. Tadakazu, Matsudaira Norisada and other talented and up-and-coming personnel were appointed, and efforts were made to sever ties with commercial capital and cleanse Tanuma's politics of corruption.

極度の緊縮政策extreme austerity policiesを基調とし、商業資本の抑圧suppressing commercial capital農村の復興the reconstruction of rural areasによる貢租体系の再整備reorganizing the tax systemはかって、幕藩体制(ばくはん・たいせい)the shogunate system再建reorganize強化strengthenしようとした。

Based on extreme austerity policies, they sought to reorganize and strengthen the shogunate system by suppressing commercial capital and reorganizing the tax system through the reconstruction of rural areas.


棄捐令(きえんれい)Kienreiorder of abandonment


負債がたまり、札差(ふださし)Rice brokerらにその生活を支配されていた旗本(はたもと)Hatamoto御家人(ごけにん)Gokeninの救済のため、松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobu1789年(寛政1年)、幕府(ばくふ)the shogunateから低利で資金を貸す一方で、札差(ふださし)Rice brokerらに6年以前の債務を破棄destroy the debts of six years or earlierさせ、5年以内の債務the debts of five years or lessについては利息を引き下げて年賦で返済させるよう命じた(棄捐令(きえんれい)Kienreiorder of abandonment))。

In 1789 (Kansei 1), Matsudaira Sadanobu received a low interest rate from the shogunate in order to save hatamoto and gokenin who had accumulated debts and had their lives controlled by Fudasashi. At the same time, he ordered Fudasashi and others to destroy the debts of six years or earlier, and to reduce the interest rate and repay the debts in annual installments for the debts of five years or less.

しかし、この措置によって札差(ふださし)Rice brokerらの受けた損害は大きく、一時的に救われた旗本(はたもと)Hatamoto御家人(ごけにん)Gokeninも、かえって金融の道が閉ざされたtheir financial avenues were closed offため、以前にまして困窮の度を深めた。

However, this measure inflicted great damage on the Fudasashi and others, and even the hatamotos and gokenins who had been temporarily saved found themselves in deeper poverty than before, as their financial avenues were closed off.


天明の大飢饉(てんめい・の・だいききん)Great Tenmei famine


天明の大飢饉(てんめい・の・だいききん)Great Tenmei famine以来、農村の荒廃は著しくrural areas have been severely devastated、それに伴って江戸に流れ込んだ人々が浮浪化vagrantsして、大きな社会問題a major social problemとなっていた。

Since the Great Tenmei Famine, rural areas have been severely devastated, and people who have flowed to Edo have become vagrants, which has become a major social problem.


石川島(いしかわ・じま)Ishikawa Island人足寄場(にんそく・よせば)Ninsoku Yoseba


このため1790年(寛政2年)、隅田川(すみだがわ)Sumida River(大川)河口の石川島(いしかわ・じま)Ishikawa Island人足寄場(にんそく・よせば)Ninsoku Yosebaを設け、人足寄場奉行の管理のもとに、無宿者homeless people軽犯罪者petty criminalsで引取人がない者などを収容し、職業指導vocational guidanceを行った。

For this reason, in 1790 (Kansei 2), Ninsoku Yoseba was established on Ishikawa Island at the mouth of the Sumida River (Okawa), and under the management of the Shinto Yoseba Magistrate, homeless people and petty criminals were taken in. It housed people who had no skills and provided them with vocational guidance.


七分積金(しちぶ・つみきん)Shichibutsumikin70% deposit


1791年(寛政3年)には、江戸市中の町費Edo City's town expenses町入用(まち・にゅうよう)machi nyuyo)を節約savedさせ、その節約分の770% of the savings町会所in the town hallに積み立てさせて、貧民の救済relief purposes for the poor非常用for emergencies資金fundに当てさせた(七分積金(しちぶ・つみきん)Shichibutsumikin70% deposit))。

In 1791 (Kansei 3rd year), Edo City's town expenses (machi nyuyo) were saved, and 70% of the savings was set aside in the town hall for relief purposes for the poor and for emergencies. It was given to the fund for


株仲間(かぶなかま)Kabunakama

運上金(うんじょうきん)unjokin冥加金(みょうがきん)myogakin


松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobuは、流通経済の抑圧suppressing the distribution economy統制の強化strengthening controlによって物価を安定stabilize pricesさせようとした。

Sadanobu Matsudaira tried to stabilize prices by suppressing the distribution economy and strengthening control.

そのため、運上金(うんじょうきん)unjokin冥加金(みょうがきん)myogakin徴収廃止the abolitionによって、財政収入が減少fiscal revenue would decreaseするにもかかわらず、あえて株仲間(かぶなかま)Kabunakama一部a portion廃止abolishedした。

Therefore, despite the fact that fiscal revenue would decrease due to the abolition of Unjokin and Meikakin, a portion of Kabu Nakama was abolished.


囲米の制(かこいまい・の・せい)system of rice engraving


1789年(寛政1年)、飢饉famineに備えて囲米の制(かこいまい・の・せい)system of rice engravingをしき、諸大名the feudal lords石高(こくだか)Kokudaka 1万石につき籾米(もみごめ)paddy rice 50石を貯蔵storeさせた。

In 1789 (1st year of the Kansei era), in preparation for famine, a system of rice engraving was introduced, and the feudal lords were forced to store 50 koku of paddy rice for every 10,000 koku of koku.

また、各地various places社倉(しゃそう)shsōa義倉(ぎそう)gisōを設けて飢饉famineに備えた。

In addition, shrines and gisō were built in various places to prepare for famine.


旧里帰農令(きゅうり・きのう・れい)The Return to Farm Order


荒廃した農村復興the reconstruction of devastated rural areasのため農村人口の確保secure a rural populationと、農民の流入the influx of farmersによって膨張した都市貧民層the expansion of the urban poor対策のために、農民の都市への出稼ぎ・逃亡を禁止prohibited for farmers to migrate or flee to citiesするいっぽう、定職を持たない者people without regular jobs都市からfrom cities農村への帰農を奨励encouraged to return to farmingした(旧里帰農令(きゅうり・きのう・れい)The Return to Farm Order)。

In order to secure a rural population for the reconstruction of devastated rural areas and to deal with the expansion of the urban poor due to the influx of farmers, it is prohibited for farmers to migrate or flee to cities, while at the same time prohibiting people without regular jobs from moving from cities to rural areas. encouraged to return to farming.

特に陸奥(むつ)Mutsu Province福島県Fukushima Prefecture宮城県Miyagi Prefecture岩手県Iwate Prefecture青森県Aomori Prefecture秋田県Akita Prefectureの一部)・常陸(ひたち)Hitachi Province茨城県Ibaraki Prefecture下野(しもつけ)Shimotsuke Province栃木県Tochigi Prefecture三国the three provincesなど、飢饉の被害が大きかった地方which were hit hard by the famineでは厳しく行われた。

In particular, it was strictly enforced in the three provinces of Mutsu, Hitachi, and Shimotsuke, which were hit hard by the famine.


奢侈禁止令(しゃし・きんし・れい)Sumptuary law


財政の窮迫the financial crunch生活の退廃the decadence of lifeの原因は奢侈(しゃし)luxuryにあるとして、旗本(はたもと)Hatamoto御家人(ごけにん)Gokenin倹約thrifty武芸martial arts学問academics奨励urgedした(奢侈禁止令(しゃし・きんし・れい)Sumptuary law)。

He urged hatamoto and gokenin to be thrifty, martial arts and academics, blaming luxury as the cause of the financial crunch and the decadence of life.


黄表紙(きびょうし)Kibyōshi


それは大名feudal lords武士samuraiに止まらず、町人の日常生活の細部the details of the daily lives of townspeopleにも及んで、私娼(ししょう)private prostitutes芸妓(げいぎ)geisha取り締まりcrackdowns混浴mixed bathing賭博(とばく)gambling禁止prohibitionsをはじめ、黄表紙(きびょうし)Kibyōshi洒落本(しゃれぼん)Sharebonなどの出版物Publicationsも、風俗を乱すdisrupt public moralsものとして統制controlledした。

This is not limited to feudal lords and samurai, but also extends to the details of the daily lives of townspeople, including crackdowns on private prostitutes and geisha, prohibitions on mixed bathing and gambling, and bans on kibyoshi and gambling. Publications such as pun books were also controlled as they were thought to disrupt public morals.


洒落本(しゃれぼん)Sharebon


山東京伝(さんとう・きょうでん)Santō Kyōden17611816


洒落本(しゃれぼん)Sharebon作家の山東京伝(さんとう・きょうでん)Santō Kyōden17611816)は、手鎖(てぐさり)5050 days in chainsの処罰を受けた。

Santo Kyoden (1761-1816), a storybook writer, was sentenced to 50 days in chains.


林羅山(はやし・らざん)Hayashi Razan道春(どうしゅん)Doshun


元禄期the Genroku period以降、幕府(ばくふ)the shogunate儒官the Confucian officialsである林家(りんけ)the Rinke family朱子学(しゅしがく)ShushigakuCheng–Zhu schoolは衰えて、聖堂学問所(せいどう・がくもんじょ)Seidō Gakumonjo学風the academic culture停滞stagnantしていた。

After the Genroku period, the Neo-Confucianism of the Hayashi family, the Confucian officials of the shogunate, declined, and the academic culture of the Sejyo Gakko became stagnant.

むしろ民間private schools蘐園学派(けんえん・がくは)the Kenen school陽明学派(ようめい・がくは)the Yomei schoolのほか、折衷学派(せっちゅう・がくは)the eclectic schoolなどの諸学派other schools対立論争conflicts and debatesし、活況thrivedを呈した。

Rather, private schools such as the Kenen school, the Yomei school, and other schools, such as the eclectic school, clashed and thrived.

There were conflicts and debates, and there was a lively atmosphere.


柴野栗山(しばの・りつざん)Shibano Ritsuzan17361807


尾藤二洲(びとう・じしゅう)Bito Jishu17471813


岡田寒泉(おかだ・かんせん)Okada Kansen17401816


古賀精里(こが・せいり)Koga Seiri17501817


松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobu朱子学再興revive Neo-Confucianismのため、学問所the school柴野栗山(しばの・りつざん)Shibano Ritsuzan17361807)・尾藤二洲(びとう・じしゅう)Bito Jishu17471813)・岡田寒泉(おかだ・かんせん)Okada Kansen17401816)(寛政の三博士(かんせい・の・さんはかせ)Kansei's Three Doctors。のち岡田寒泉(おかだ・かんせん)に代わり古賀精里(こが・せいり)Koga Seiri17501817))らを教官instructorsとして採用した。

Matsudaira Sadanobu (1736-1807), Bito Jishu (1747-1813), Okada Kansen (1747-1813), and Shibano Ritsuzan (1736-1807) set the school in order to revive Neo-Confucianism. (1740-1816) (Kansei's Three Doctors. Later, Seiri Koga (1750-1817) replaced Kansen Okada) and others as instructors.


寛政異学の禁(かんせい・いがく・の・きん)kansei igaku no kin


また封建体制を維持maintain the feudal systemし、幕政の強化strengthen the shogunate governmentをはかるため、1790年(寛政2年)、柴野栗山(しばの・りつざん)Shibano Ritsuzan建議proposalを入れ、朱子学(しゅしがく)Neo-Confucianism正学(せいがく)the official schoolとし儒学諸派various schools of Confucianism異学(いがく)different schoolsとして、聖堂学問所(せいどう・がくもんじょ)Seidō Gakumonjoでの講義を禁じprohibited lectures朱子学(しゅしがく)の保護protected Neo-Confucianismをはかった(寛政異学の禁(かんせい・いがく・の・きん)kansei igaku no kin)。

In addition, in order to maintain the feudal system and strengthen the shogunate government, in 1790, Ritsuzan SHIBANO made a proposal to make Neo-Confucianism the official school and categorize various schools of Confucianism into different schools. As a result, he prohibited lectures at the Seido Gakumonjo and protected Neo-Confucianism (Kansei Igaku no Kin).


大成殿(たいせいでん)Taiseiden湯島聖堂(ゆしませいどう)Yushima Seidō


昌平坂学問所(しょうへいざか・がくもんじょ)Shōhei-zaka Gakumonjo

聖堂学問所(せいどう・がくもんじょ)Seidō Gakumonjo


幕吏任用試験The examination for the appointment of shogunate official朱子学(しゅしがく)Neo-Confucianismに限り、さらに聖堂学問所(せいどう・がくもんじょ)Seidō Gakumonjo幕府管理下the control of the shogunateに移し、昌平坂学問所(しょうへいざか・がくもんしょ)Shōhei-zaka Gakumonjo改められたrenamed

The examination for the appointment of shogunate official was limited to Neo-Confucianism, and the temple school was also transferred to the control of the shogunate and renamed Shohei-zaka Gakumonsho.


ロシアの南下Russia's advance southward


千島列島(ちしま・れっとう)the Kuril Islands


蝦夷地(えぞち)Ezochi


厚岸町(あっけし・ちょう)Akkeshi-chō


ロシアRussia1730年代以降、次第に千島列島(ちしま・れっとう)the Kuril Islandsに沿って南下moved southし、1778年(安永7年)にはロシア船a Russian ship蝦夷地(えぞち)Ezochi厚岸(あっけし)Akkeshiに来航し、松前藩(まつまえ・はん)Matsumae Domain通商tradeを求めた。

From the 1730s onward, Russia gradually moved south along the Kuril Islands, and in 1778 (Yasun'ei 7), a Russian ship came to Akkeshi in Ezoji and asked the Matsumae clan for trade.


アダム・ラクスマンAdam Laxman


また1792年(寛政4年)には、ラックスマンLaksman1766年~?)通商tradeを求めて根室(ねむろ)Nemuroに来航した。

Also, in 1792 (Kansei 4), Laksman (1766-?) came to Nemuro in search of trade.


松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobu17581829

徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)Tokugawa Yoshimunegrandson


これらの情勢に対処In response to these circumstancesして、幕府(ばくふ)the shogunateでは、1791年(寛政3年)に松前藩(まつまえ・はん)Matsumae Domain蝦夷地(えぞち)Ezochi警備guardを命じ、諸藩the various domains異国船渡来the arrival of foreign shipsの際の処置を指令する一方、1792年(寛政4年)~1793年(寛政5年)、松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobu自ら安房(あわ)Awa Province上総(かずさ)Kazusa Province下総(しもうさ)Shimousa Province伊豆(いず)Izu Province相模(さがみ)Sagami Province海岸coasts巡視patrolledし、江戸湾の防備the defense of Edo Bayには幕府(ばくふ)the shogunate自身が当たることとし、沿岸諸藩the coastal domainsにも海防の強化strengthen their coastal defensesを命じた。

In response to these circumstances, the shogunate ordered the Matsumae clan to guard Ezochi in 1791 (3rd year of Kansei era), ordered the various clans to deal with the arrival of foreign ships, and in 1792 (4th year of Kansei era) ) ~ 1793 (Kansei 5), Sadanobu Matsudaira himself patrolled the coasts of Awa, Kazusa, Shimousa, Izu, and Sagami, and decided that the Shogunate would be responsible for the defense of Edo Bay, He also ordered the domain to strengthen its coastal defenses.


林子平(はやし・しへい)Hayashi Shihei17381793


三国通覧図説(さんごく・つうらん・ずせつ)Sangoku Tsūran Zusetsu


ロシア南下Russia was moving southward形勢the situationを見て、国防の要を痛感acutely aware of the importance of national defenseした林子平(はやし・しへい)Hayashi Shihei17381793)は、1785年(天明5年)に『三国通覧図説(さんごく・つうらん・ずせつ)Sangoku Tsūran Zusetsu』を著し、日本防衛the defense of Japanのため、蝦夷Ezo朝鮮Korea琉球Ryukyu三国を確保secure the three countriesし、ロシアの南下Russia's move southwardに備えて蝦夷地開拓develop Ezo land必要性needを説いた。

Hayashi Shihei (1738-1793), who saw the situation in which Russia was moving southward and became acutely aware of the importance of national defense, published the "Illustrated Guide to the Three Kingdoms" in 1785 (Tenmei 5). He wrote and advocated the need to secure the three countries of Ezo, Korea, and Ryukyu for the defense of Japan, and to develop Ezo land in preparation for Russia's move southward.

さらに1791年(寛政3年)には、『海国兵談(かいこく・へいだん)Kaikoku Heidan』を著して、外国に対する防備の必要the need for defense against foreign countriesを力説した。

Furthermore, in 1791 (Kansei 3), he wrote ``Kaikokuheidadan,'' emphasizing the need for defense against foreign countries.


松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobu17581829

徳川吉宗(とくがわよしむね)Tokugawa Yoshimunegrandson


これに対して松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobuは、翌1792年(寛政4年)、いたずらに民心を動揺させるupset the people's sentimentsものとして『海国兵談(かいこく・へいだん)Kaikoku Heidan』を絶版go out of print発売禁止banned from saleにし、林子平(はやし・しへい)Hayashi Shihei禁固刑sentenced to imprisonmentに処した。

In response, Sadanobu Matsudaira (1792) ordered Kaikokuheidan to go out of print and be banned from sale, claiming that it would unnecessarily upset the people's sentiments. , Shihei Hayashi was sentenced to imprisonment.


アダム・ラクスマンAdam Laxman


ラックスマンLaksman来航arrivalは、林子平(はやし・しへい)Hayashi Shiheiが処罰された4か月後であった。

Laksman's arrival came four months after Shihei Hayashi was punished.


大田南畝(おおた・なんぽ)Ōta Nanpo


松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobu緊縮政策austerity policyをとり、幕政の立て直しrebuild the shogunateに努力したが、それは時代に逆行するwent against the times反動の傾向reactionary tendencyが強く、幕府内部within the shogunateばかりでなく、「白河の清きに魚の住みかねて もとの濁りの田沼こひしきFish can no longer live in the clear waters of Shirakawa, and Tanuma Kohishiki remains as murky as before.」、「世の中に蚊ほどうるさきものはなし ぶんぶ(文武)といふて夜もねられずThere's nothing in the world as noisy as a mosquito, and I can't sleep at night because it's called Bunbu.」(大田南畝(おおた・なんぽ)Ōta Nanpo)と狂歌(きょうか)Kyōkaにもうたわれたように、庶民の反発backlash from the common peopleも招いた。

Sadanobu Matsudaira adopted an austerity policy and made efforts to rebuild the shogunate, but this had a strong reactionary tendency that went against the times. As in the kyōka poems, such as ``Middy Tanuma Kohishiki'' and ``There is nothing as noisy as a mosquito in the world, even at night, even if you say Bunbu (Bunbu)'' (Ota Nanpo), there was a backlash from the common people. also invited.


徳川家斉(とくがわ・いえなり)Tokugawa Ienari(在職1787年~1837年)

11代将軍the 11th shogun

一橋家(ひとつばしけ)Hitotsubashi House

徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)の曾孫great-grandson


また、徳川家斉(とくがわ・いえなり)Tokugawa Ienari成長grew upして松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobu存在がうとんぜられるようになってきたexistence began to be ignoredこともあって、1793年(寛政5年)、伊豆(いず)Izu Province静岡県Shizuoka Prefecture相模(さがみ)Sagami Province神奈川県(かながわけん)Kanagawa Prefecture)の沿岸巡視中on a tour of the coast of松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobu老中首座head of the Roju将軍補佐役assistant to the shogun免ぜられrelieved失脚fell from graceした。

In addition, as Ienari Tokugawa grew up and Matsudaira Sadanobu's existence began to be ignored, in 1793 (Kansei 5), Matsudaira Sadanobu was on a tour of the coast of Izu and Sagami. He was relieved of his position as head of the Roju and assistant to the shogun, and fell from grace.


松平信明まつだいら・のぶあきら)Matsudaira Nobuakira


水野忠成みずの・ただあきら)Mizuno Tadaakira


しかし、以降も松平信明まつだいら・のぶあきら)Matsudaira Nobuakira松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobu密接なつながりclose tiesを持ついわゆる「寛政の遺老(かんせい・の・いろう)Kansei elders」たちが政権を担当in charge of the governmentし、1818年に水野忠成みずの・ただあきら)Mizuno Tadaakira政権governmentが誕生するまで、改革の基本路線the fundamentals of reformは継続した。

However, from then on, the so-called "Kansei elders" who had close ties to Matsudaira Sadanobu, such as Nobuaki Matsudaira, were in charge of the government, and until the Tadakira Mizuno government was established in 1818, the fundamentals of reform remained unchanged. The route continued.


松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobu17581829

徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)Tokugawa Yoshimunegrandson


松平定信(まつだいら・さだのぶ)Matsudaira Sadanobuは、農村支配の強化のため荒廃した農村の復興rebuild devastated farming villagesをはかり、また商業資本を抑圧suppressing commercial capitalすることによって本百姓(ほんびゃくしょう)Honbyakushō解体the dissolutionを防止し、幕藩体制の危機the crisis of the shogunate systemを乗り切ろうとした。

Sadanobu Matsudaira tried to rebuild devastated farming villages in order to strengthen his control over them, prevent the dissolution of honhyakusho by suppressing commercial capital, and try to overcome the crisis of the shogunate system.

しかし、これら保守的・反動的色彩の濃い、極端な緊縮政策extreme austerity policies思想・言論の統制control of thought and speechは、一時的な幕政の立て直しは成しえてもeven if the shogunate could be temporarily rebuilt根本的に解決fundamentally solvedすることはできなかった。

However, these conservative and reactionary extreme austerity policies and control of thought and speech could not be fundamentally solved, even if the shogunate could be temporarily rebuilt.


徳川吉宗(とくがわ・よしむね)Tokugawa Yoshimune(在職1716年~1745年)

8代将軍the 8th shogun


享保の改革(きょうほう・の・かいかく)Kyoho Reforms寛政の改革(かんせい・の・かいかく)Kansei Reformsは、農村の回復the recovery of rural villages重要な課題an important issueにしてきたが、それにもかかわらず、18世紀~19世紀にかけて農村rural villages荒廃devastatedに直面した。

The Kyoho Reforms and the Kansei Reforms made the recovery of rural villages an important issue, but despite this, rural villages were devastated during the 18th and 19th centuries. faced.

農民Farmersは、領主の租税引き上げthe lord's tax hikes定免法(じょうめんほう)A fixed exemption lawの採用や商品経済の流入the influx of the commodity economyで生活が苦しくなり、田畑を質入れしてpawned their fields(事実上の売却)小作(こさく)tenant farmersに転落する者、離村して都市下層民the lower class peopleになる者などが現れ、代わって寄生地主(きせい・じぬし)parasitic landlordsなどが成長してきていた。

Farmers' lives became difficult due to the lord's tax hikes, the introduction of fixed exemption laws, and the influx of the commodity economy, and some pawned their fields (effectively sold them) and became tenant farmers, while others left their villages and moved to cities. Those who became the lower class people appeared, and parasitic landlords and others were growing on their behalf.


享保の大飢饉(きょうほう・の・だいききん)Great Kyōhō famine1732年)


天明の大飢饉(てんめい・の・だいききん)Great Tenmei famine1782年~1787年)


天保の飢饉(てんぽう・の・だいききん)Great Tenpō famine1833年~1839年)


天保の飢饉(てんぽう・の・だいききん)Great Tenpō famine1833年~1839年)


しばしば起こる凶作crop failures飢饉faminesは、人々の生活people's livesをいっそう苦しいものにした。

The frequent crop failures and famines made people's lives even more difficult.

なかでも享保の大飢饉(きょうほう・の・だいききん)Great Kyōhō famine1732年)・天明の大飢饉(てんめい・の・だいききん)Great Tenmei famine1782年~1787年)・天保の飢饉(てんぽう・の・だいききん)Great Tenpō famine1833年~1839年)は、その被害damageが全国的に及んで甚(はなは)だしく、近世後期の三大飢饉the three major famines of the late modern period江戸三大飢饉(えど・さんだい・ききん)Three Great famines in the Edo period)と言われている。

Among these, the Kyoho famine (1732), Tenmei famine (1782-1787), and Tenpo famine (1833-1839) caused severe damage throughout the country. , is said to be one of the three major famines of the late modern period.

商人merchants地主landowners凶作the bad harvestになると穀物の買占めbought up grain売り惜しみheld off on selling itをして、米価の高騰the price of rice to soarを招き、多数の餓死者many deaths from starvationを出すなど被害damageをさらに大きくした。

When the harvest went bad, merchants and landowners bought up grain or held off on selling it, causing the price of rice to soar, causing many deaths from starvation, and causing even more damage.

農村人口の減少the decline in the rural population農業生産力を低下a decline in agricultural productivityさせ、農村の荒廃the devastation of rural areasをいっそう促した。

The decline in the rural population led to a decline in agricultural productivity and further accelerated the devastation of rural areas.


百姓一揆(ひゃくしょう・いっき)peasant uprisings


このような窮乏に堪えかねた農民farmers who could not endure such povertyのうちから、次第に百姓一揆(ひゃくしょう・いっき)Farmers' uprisings起こり始めたbegan to occur

Farmers' uprisings began to occur among farmers who could not endure such poverty.

やがて飢饉faminesが頻繁に続くと、各地in various places百姓一揆(ひゃくしょう・いっき)peasant uprisingsが一段と激しくなったintensified

Before long, famines continued frequently, and peasant uprisings intensified in various places.


天明の打ちこわし(てんめい・の・うちこわし)Tenmei no Uchikoushi


また都市citiesでも、没落fallして農村farming villagesから流入flowed inした貧民poor peopleたちが、圧政tyranny米価高騰soaring rice pricesに対して、富裕な米屋wealthy rice dealers高利貸loan sharks襲撃attackし、rice借金証文loan certificatesなどを奪うstealing打ちこわしUchikoushiが、18世紀後半the late 18th centuryから頻発し始めたbegan to occur frequently

Also, in the cities, poor people who flowed in from farming villages after the fall began to attack wealthy rice dealers and loan sharks in response to oppression and soaring rice prices.

 








































 
































 















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