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2024年5月14日火曜日

世界史 26 World history 26

中国周辺の情勢 Situation around China

 

匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu



グラマンF4Fワイルドキャット Grumman F4F Wildcat


グラマンF4Fワイルドキャット Grumman F4F Wildcat


グラマンF4Fワイルドキャット Grumman F4F Wildcat


グラマンF4Fワイルドキャット Grumman F4F Wildcat


グラマンF4Fワイルドキャット Grumman F4F Wildcat


グラマンF4Fワイルドキャット Grumman F4F Wildcat



匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


2 Chapter 2

古代文明の成立

Establishment of ancient civilization

6節 Section Six

中国古典文明と古代帝国

Chinese Classical Civilization and

Ancient Empire

5 中国周辺の情勢 Situation around China

匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu

アジア内陸inland Asia乾燥地帯arid regionsには、新石器時代Neolithic periodにいわゆる遊牧民nomadic peoples西方the westから入ってきた。

So-called nomadic peoples came from the west during the Neolithic period into the arid regions of inland Asia.

彼らは天幕tentsに住み、水・草を追ってchasing water and grass遊牧nomadic pasturesし、細石器fine stone toolsを愛用し、きわめて平和的な生活peaceful lifeを送っていた。

They lived in tents, nomadic pastures chasing water and grass, using fine stone tools, and leading a very peaceful life.

東アジアEast Asiaの地では、モンゴル高原Mongolian plateau遊牧grazedしていた原始遊牧民primitive nomadsが、4世紀ごろaround the 4th century B.C.E.西方westernスキタイ青銅器文化Scythian Bronze Age cultureを学んで、鋭利な武器sharp weaponsをもつ好戦的belligerent騎馬遊牧民horse-riding nomadsとなり、強盛となった。

In East Asia, the primitive nomads who grazed the Mongolian plateau learned about the western Scythian Bronze Age culture around the 4th century B.C.E.

They became belligerent horse-riding nomads with sharp weapons and flourished.

これが匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuで、匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnu人種raceモンゴル系Mongolianトルコ系Turkishイラン系Iranianなどといわれて定説established theoryはない。

This is the Xiongnu, and the race of the Xiongnu is said to be Mongolian, Turkish, Iranian, etc., but there is no established theory.

彼らは農耕地帯agricultural areas豊富な物資abundant suppliesを求めて、しばしば中国北辺northern China侵入invaded漢民族the Han Chineseを脅かした。

They often invaded northern China and threatened the Han Chinese in search of the abundant supplies of the agricultural areas.


スキタイ人 The Scythians


スキタイ人 The Scythians


補足supplementary explanation

スキタイ金属器文化 Scythian metalware culture

スキタイ人The Scythians7世紀 the 7th century BCからカスピ海岸Caspian coastに勃興し、6世紀the 6th century BC黒海Black Sea北岸northern coast王国kingdomを建てて栄えたペルシア系Persian騎馬遊牧民nomads on horsebackである。

The Scythians are Persian nomads on horseback who arose on the Caspian coast in the 7th century BC and built a kingdom on the northern coast of the Black Sea in the 6th century BC.

saddlesあぶみstirrupsなどの馬具Horse harnesses青銅器bronze甲冑armorshields短剣daggersなどの武具arms武器の類weapons、および金製の装飾品gold ornamentsが非常に発達していた。

Horse harnesses such as saddles and stirrups, arms and weapons such as bronze armor, shields and daggers, as well as gold ornaments, were highly developed.

ことに独自の動物意匠は有名unique animal designs

It is especially famous for its unique animal designs.

遺品を豊富に収蔵しているのはレニングラードLeningradエルミタージュ博物館Hermitage Museumである。

The Hermitage Museum in Leningrad has a rich collection of relics.


万里の長城(ばんり・の・ちょうじょう) Great Wall of China


戦国時代Warring States periodには、匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuはたびたび中国北辺northern China侵入invadedしたが、3世紀後半the latter half of the 3rd century B.C.には(しん)(チン)の始皇帝(し・こうてい)(シ・ファンディ)Qin Shi Huangdithe first emperor of the Qin dynasty)によって駆逐expelledされ、侵入防止prevent invasionのために万里の長城(ばんり・の・ちょうじょう)Great Wall of Chinaが修築された。

During the Warring States period, the Xiongnu often invaded northern China, but in the latter half of the 3rd century B.C.

They were expelled by the First Emperor of Qin, and the Great Wall of China was repaired to prevent invasion.


東胡(とうこ) Donghu月氏(げっし) Yuezhi


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


しかし、匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnu3世紀末ごろaround the end of the 3rd century B.C.冒頓単于(ぼくとつ・ぜんう)Modu Chanyu(在位前209年~前174年)が現れると、部族国家tribal stateを建てて強大となり、東胡(とうこ)Donghu月氏(げっし)Yuezhiなど諸民族tribesを討ってdefeated東西貿易路the east-west trade route独占monopolizeし、中国東北部northeastern Chinaから西in the west中央アジアCentral Asiain the southオルドスOrdosからin the north外モンゴルOuter Mongoliaにおよぶ大遊牧国家large nomadic stateを建設し、しばしば中国北辺northern China侵入invadedした。

However, around the end of the 3rd century B.C., the Xiongnu established a tribal state and became powerful after the appearance of the Dandan Yu, and defeated the Eastern Hu and Yuezhi tribes to monopolize the east-west trade route, from northeastern China in the east to Central Asia in the west. , established a large nomadic state stretching from Ordos in the south to Outer Mongolia in the north, and often invaded northern China.

200200 B.C.前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynasty高祖(こうそ)(ギャオズ)Gaozu劉邦(りゅうほう)(ルー・ベン)Liu Bang)と戦って勝ち、以後毎年漢室(かんしつ)Han familyより多額の貢物a large amount of tributeを受け取った。

In 200 B.C., he fought against Gaozu (Liu Bang) of Han and won.

Since then, he received a large amount of tribute from the Han family every year.


冒頓単于(ぼくとつ・ぜんう) Modu Chanyu (在位前209年~前174年)


冒頓単于(ぼくとつ・ぜんう) Modu Chanyu (在位前209年~前174年)


補足supplementary explanation

単于(ぜんう) Chanyu

匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnu最高君主supreme monarch称号title

The title of the supreme monarch of the Xiongnu.

漢書Chinese textsには単于(ぜんう)Chanyuとは広大vastの意とあるが、明らかでない。

According to Chinese texts, the word 'Tanyu' means vast, but it is not clear.


平城(へいじょう) Pingcheng (今now大同(だいどう) Datong


冒頓単于(ぼくとつ・ぜんう)Modu Chanyu前漢(ぜんかん)時代Former Han dynasty匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnukingで、内外モンゴルInner and Outer Mongoliaを平定し、高祖(こうそ)(ギャオズ)Gaozu劉邦(りゅうほう)(ルー・ベン)Liu Bang)を平城(へいじょう)Pingcheng(今now大同(だいどう)(ダートン)Datong)に包囲laid siegeして、屈辱的な和親humiliating treatyを結ばせた。

Futun Tanyu was a Xiongnu king in the Former Han dynasty who pacified Inner and Outer Mongolia, laid siege to Gaozu (Liu Bang) in Pingcheng (now Datong), and made a humiliating treaty.


ジュンガリア Dzungaria タリム盆地 Tarim Basin


ジュンガリア Dzungaria タリム盆地 Tarim Basin


ジュンガリア Dzungaria タリム盆地 Tarim Basin


更に西westジュンガリアDzungariaからタリム盆地Tarim Basinに勢力を延ばして大帝国great empireを建設し、匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnu最盛期peakを現出した。

Further west, extending from Dzungaria to the Tarim Basin, they built a great empire, and the Xiongnu reached its peak.


前漢(ぜんかん) Former Han Dynasty 西漢(せいかん) Western Han Dynasty


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


匈奴の東西分裂 East-West division of the Xiongnu

その後、匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnu(かん)(ハン)武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wu of Hanの大討伐を受け、ついにオルドスOrdos甘粛(かんしゅく)(カンスー)Gansuなどを手離し、ゴビ砂漠Gobi Desertの北に退き内陸貿易inland tradeの利を失ってしだいに衰えた。

After that, the Xiongnu were severely subjugated by Emperor Wu of Han, finally gave up Ordos and Gansu, retreated to the north of the Gobi Desert, and lost the advantage of inland trade and gradually declined.

1世紀中ごろthe middle of the 1st century B.C.匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnu内紛internal strifeが起こり東西に分裂divided into East and Westした。

In the middle of the 1st century B.C., the Xiongnu were divided into East and West due to internal strife.

東匈奴(ひがし・きょうど)Eastern Xiongnu(かん)(ハン)Han Dynastyに服属し、西匈奴(にし・きょうど)Western Xiongnuシベリア西部western Siberiaキルギス草原Kyrgyz steppeに追われ、やがて中国China同盟alliedした東匈奴(ひがし・きょうど)Eastern Xiongnuに滅ぼされた。

The Eastern Xiongnu surrendered to the Han dynasty, while the Western Xiongnu were exiled to the Kyrgyz steppe in western Siberia and eventually destroyed by the Eastern Xiongnu, who allied with China.

以後1世紀の間、(かん)(ハン)Han Dynasty北辺northern frontier平和peaceを保ち、その間、東匈奴(ひがし・きょうど)Eastern Xiongnu中国文化Chinese cultureの影響を受けて鉄器時代Iron Ageに入った。

For the next century, the northern frontier of Han remained at peace, while the Eastern Xiongnu entered the Iron Age under the influence of Chinese culture.


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu


東匈奴の南北分裂

The North-South split of the Eastern Xiongnu

匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuは、1世紀中ごろthe middle of the 1st century後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynasty光武帝(こうぶ・てい)Emperor Guangwu時代era)、再び内紛internal strifeが起こり、南北に分裂divided into north and southした。

In the middle of the 1st century (during the era of Emperor Guangwu of the Later Han), the Xiongnu were divided into north and south due to internal strife again.

南匈奴(みなみ・きょうど)Southern Xiongnu後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynasty服属subjugatedし、その一部は長城(ちょうじょう)Great Wall of China以南に土着して農耕生活farmingに入り完全に中国化completely Sinicizedする者も現れた。

The Southern Xiongnu were subjugated to the Later Han dynasty, and some of them settled south of the Great Wall, began farming, and became completely Sinicized.


後漢(ごかん) Later Han Dynasty和帝(わ・てい) Emperor He


一方、北匈奴(きた・きょうど)Northern Xiongnuはしきりに南匈奴(みなみ・きょうど)Southern Xiongnuを侵し、中国北辺the northern part of Chinaを脅かしたが、1世紀末the end of the 1st century後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynasty和帝(わ・てい)Emperor He討伐subjugatedを受けて西方に逃れfled westward、その一部はまず烏孫(うそん)Wusunに、更にキルギス草原Kyrgyz steppeを越えて西進advanced westwardし、4世紀 the 4th centuryヴォルガ・フンthe Volga Hunとして南ロシアsouthern Russiaに現れ、同世紀末the late 4th centuryには黒海北岸the northern coast of the Black Seaに現れた。

On the other hand, the Northern Xiongnu continued to invade the Southern Xiongnu and threatened the northern part of China, but at the end of the 1st century they were subjugated by the Emperor of the Later Han dynasty and fled westward, some of them first to Wusun, and then crossed the Kyrgyz steppe and advanced westward. Then, in the 4th century, they appeared in southern Russia as the Volga Hun, and in the late 4th century they appeared on the northern coast of the Black Sea.


フン人 the Huns


これがヨーロッパEuropeゲルマン民族Germanic peoples大移動the great migrationを引き起こしたフン人the Hunsであろうといわれている。

It is said that this was the Huns who caused the great migration of Germanic peoples to Europe.


中央アジアの民族移動 Migration in Central Asia


中央アジアの民族移動 Migration in Central Asia


中央アジアの民族移動

Migration in Central Asia

匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnu勃興riseとその移動migrationは、中央アジアCentral Asia諸民族the peoples大きな影響great impactを与えた。

The rise and migration of the Xiongnu had a great impact on the peoples of Central Asia.

甘粛(かんしゅく)(カンスー)Gansu方面にいたトルコ系Turkic ancestry月氏(げっし)Yuezhiイラン系Iranian ancestryともいわれる)は、甘粛(かんしゅく)(カンスー)以西west of Gansuに住み、牧畜livestock farmingを主とし農業agricultureを副としながら、東西の中継貿易intermediary trade between the east and westの利を得ていた。

The Yuezhi (also known as the Iranian) of Turkic ancestry in the Kansu area lived west of Kansu, mainly engaged in livestock farming and subsidized agriculture, and benefited from intermediary trade between the east and west.

2世紀 the 2nd century BCに、貿易の独占monopolize trade中央アジアCentral Asia制圧controlを目的とした匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuの圧迫を受けて、月氏(げっし)Yuezhi天山(テンシャン)Tian Shan方面areaに移動し、当時キルギス草原Kyrgyz steppeからイリ盆地Ili Basinにかけて分布していたスキタイ系Scythian origin遊牧民族サカ族the nomadic Saka peopleを西方に追ってイリ盆地Ili Basin占領occupiedした。

In the 2nd century BC, under pressure from the Xiongnu who wanted to monopolize trade and control Central Asia, the Yue clan moved to the Tianshan area. followed the tribe westward and occupied the Ili Basin. At that time, they pursued the nomadic Saka people of Scythian origin who were distributed from the Kyrgyz steppe to the Iri Basin to the west and occupied the Iri Basin.


オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states 西域36 36 countries in the western region


オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states 西域36 36 countries in the western region


オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states 西域36 36 countries in the western region


しかし、間もなくジュンガリア地方Dzungaria region天山北路(てんざん・ほくろ)Tianshan North Road)にあって匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuの支配下にあったトルコ系the Turkic烏孫(うそん)Wusunがこの地に進出したため、再び移動してアム川北岸the north bank of the Am Riverバクトリア地方Bactria regionに入り建国した。

However, soon after, the Turkic Wusun, who had been under the control of the Xiongnu in the Dzungaria region (Tianshan North Road), advanced to this region, so they moved again and entered the Bactria region on the north bank of the Am River to establish a state.

これを大月氏(だいげっし)Greater Yuezhiという。

This is called Greater Yuezhi.


大月氏(だいげっし) Greater Yuezhi 大夏(たいか)Daxia


この結果、甘粛(かんしゅく)(カンスー)Gansu匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuイリ盆地Ili Basin烏孫(うそん)Wusunアム川the Am Riverを境とする北方to the northには大月氏(だいげっし)Greater Yuezhi南方to the southにはサカ族Saka people同類same speciesトハラ人the Tocharians大夏(たいか)Daxia)が並び立った。

As a result, the Xiongnu clan in Gansu, the Wusun clan in the Ili Basin, the Otsuki clan to the north of the Am River, and the Tohara clan of the same species as Saka Saka to the south.


クシャーナ朝クシャン朝 Kushan dynasty


クシャーナ朝 Kushan dynasty 貴霜朝(きそうちょう) Guishuang dynasty)(30年~375年)


大月氏(だいげっし)Greater Yuezhiはその後1世紀ごろaround the 1st century BCアム川南岸the south bank of the Am River大夏(たいか)Daxiaトハラ人the Tocharians)を服属subjugatedさせ、ギリシア文化Greek cultureを受容して繁栄した。

After that, around the 1st century BC, the Otsuki clan subjugated Tohara on the south bank of the Am River and prospered by adopting Greek culture.

前述したクシャーナ朝クシャン朝Kushan dynastyは、この一諸侯one lordから興った。

The Kushana Dynasty, mentioned above, arose from this one lord.


新疆(しんきょう)(シンチャン) Xinjiang

新疆ウイグル自治区 Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region


新疆(しんきょう)(シンチャン) Xinjiang


オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states 西域36 36 countries in the western region


オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states 西域36 36 countries in the western region


西域のオアシス都市国家

Western Region Oasis City-States

西域(せいいき)Xiyu, Western Regionsはもともと西方諸国the countries of the Westの総称で、その中心は今の新疆(しんきょう)(シンチャン)Xinjiang、いわゆる天山南路(てんざん・なんろ)Tianshan South Roadに当たり、東西交通路the east-west transportation routeの幹線をなしている。

The Western Region was originally a general term for the countries of the West, and its center was present-day Xinjiang, the so-called Tianshan South Road, which forms the trunk of the east-west transportation route.

パミール高原Pamir Plateauの西側やタリム盆地Tarim Basinの周辺のオアシスoasesには、2世紀 the 2nd century BCからアーリア人the Aryansが定住して、灌漑農業irrigated agricultureを営むかたわら、東西の中継貿易trade between east and westを行い、小城郭都市国家small walled city-statesを築いて繁栄していた。

Since the 2nd century BC, the Aryans have settled in the oases around the western Pamir Plateau and the Tarim Basin, and while engaging in irrigated agriculture, trade between east and west was carried out, and prospered by building small walled city-states.


張騫(ちょう・けん) Zhang Qian (?~前114年)


統一国家unified nationを完成した前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynasty武帝(ぶ・てい) Emperor Wuは、大月氏(だいげっし)Greater Yuezhiと同盟して匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuを挟撃するため張騫(ちょう・けん)Zhang Qian西域(せいいき)Xiyu, Western Regionsに派遣した。

Emperor Wu of Han, who had completed a unified nation, dispatched Zhang Qian to the Western Regions to ally with the Oyue clan and attack the Xiongnu from both sides.

前後13年かかった張騫(ちょう・けん)Zhang Qianの苦難にみちた大旅行は、その本来の使命original missionを達することはできなかったが、これによって西域(せいいき)Xiyu, Western Regions事情situationが初めて中国Chinaに知られるようになった。

Although Zhang Qian's journey, which took 13 years before and after, was full of hardships, but failed to achieve its original mission, it was the first time that the situation in the Western Regions became known to China.


大宛(だいえん) Dayuan フェルガナ Fergana


大宛(だいえん) Dayuan フェルガナ Fergana


衛青(えい・せい) Wei Qing


霍去病(かく・きょへい) Huo Qubing


李広利(り・こうり) Li Guangli


武帝(ぶ・てい) Emperor Wu張騫(ちょう・けん)Zhang Qian遠征expedition西域(せいいき)Xiyu, Western Regions事情situationが明らかになると、衛青(えい・せい)Wei Qing霍去病(かく・きょへい)Huo Qubing匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnu討伐extermination李広利(り・こうり)Li Guangli大宛(だいえん)DayuanフェルガナFergana遠征expeditionを初め、しばしば大軍large armyを派遣して西域36the 36 countries in the Western Regions服属subjugateさせた。

After Zhang Qian's expedition revealed the situation in the Western Regions, Emperor Wu often dispatched a large army to subjugate the 36 countries in the Western Regions, starting with Wei Qing and Huo Guo's extermination of the Xiongnu and Li Guangli's expedition to Fergana.


宣帝(せん・てい) Emperor Xuan


班超(はん・ちょう) Ban Chao


甘英(かん・えい) Gan Ying


西域都護府(せいいき・とごふ) Protectorate of the Western Regions


西域都護(せいいき・とご) Xīyù Dūhù, Protectorate of the Western Regions


6060 B.C.E.宣帝(せん・てい)Emperor Xuanのとき西域都護府(せいいき・とごふ)Protectorate of the Western Regions烏塁城(うるいじょう)(今のシャディルShadir)において西域経営management of the Western Regionsに乗り出した。

In 60 B.C.E., Emperor Xuan embarked on management of the Western Regions in Wuli City (present-day Shadir).

更に後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynasty時代には西域都護(せいいき・とご)Protectorate of the Western Regions班超(はん・ちょう)Ban Chaoらの活躍により、カスピ海Caspian Sea以東の56国を支配した。

Furthermore, in the Later Han Dynasty, due to the activities of Togo Bancho and others in the western region, he ruled 56 countries east of the Caspian Sea.

また、班超(はん・ちょう)Ban Chao部下subordinate甘英(かん・えい)Gan Ying大秦国(たいしんこく)DaqinローマRomeあるいはその東方領eastern territories)に派遣されて、条支(じょうし)JozhiシリアSyria)に至ったのもこのころのことである。

It was also around this time that Kan Ying, a subordinate of Ban Chao, was dispatched to Daqin (Rome or its eastern territories) and arrived in Jozhi (Syria).


オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states 西域36 36 countries in the western region


オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states 西域36 36 countries in the western region


補足supplementary explanation

西域36 the 36 countries in the Western Regions

西域(せいいき)Xiyu, Western Regionsとは、中国人the Chineseが古くから中国西方諸国the western countries of China総称general termとして用いた名称で、広義in a broad senseではペルシアPersia小アジアAsia MinorシリアSyriaエジプトEgypt方面からネパールNepalインドIndiaまで、ときには青海(せいかい)QinghaiチベットTibet方面をも含める。

The Western Region is a name that the Chinese have used as a general term for the western countries of China since ancient times, and in a broad sense it includes Persia, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Nepal, India, and sometimes Qinghai and Tibet.


東トルキスタンEast Turkistan


トルキスタンに含まれる国家・地域を囲った地図

Map enclosing countries and regions included in Turkestan

トルキスタンの面積は、インド亜大陸よりも広い

The area of Turkestan is larger than the Indian subcontinent.


狭義In a narrow senseでは、タリム盆地Tarim Basinすなわち東トルキスタンEast Turkistanオアシス国家群a group of oasis statesをいう。

In a narrow sense, it refers to the Tarim Basin, a group of oasis states in East Turkistan.

(かん)(ハン)during the Han dynasty東トルキスタンEast Turkistanオアシス諸国the oasis nations匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuの支配下にあったとき、それらの国は西域36the 36 nations of the Western Regionsと総称され、その後も数世紀間for several centuries、実数にかかわりなく36the 36 nationsと呼ばれた。

When the oasis nations of East Turkistan were under Xiongnu rule during the Han dynasty, they were collectively called the 36 nations of the Western Regions, and for several centuries after that they were called the 36 nations, regardless of their actual numbers.


山海関(さんかいかん) Shanhaiguan


これらの国々のことは 漢書(かんじょ)Book of Han 西域伝the Western Regionsに見えている。

These countries can be seen in the Western Regions of the Book of Han.

漢書(かんじょ)Book of Han 地理志the Geographyでは、西域諸国the countries of the Western Regionsまでの里数は、長安(ちょうあん)(チャンアン)Chang'anからの距離、山海関(さんかいかん)Shanhaiguanからの距離で示されている。

In the Geography of the "Book of Han," the number of ri to the countries of the Western Regions is indicated by the distance from Chang'an and the distance from Shanhaiguan.


絹の道(きぬ・の・みち) Silk Road


絹の道(きぬ・の・みち) Silk Road


こうして西域交通traffic in the western regionは大いに開け、東西文化の交流cultural exchanges between the East and the Westは目ざましく発展した。

Thus, traffic in the western region opened up greatly, and cultural exchanges between the East and the West developed remarkably.

中国Chinaからは特産special productssilk漆器lacquerwareなどが西方westwardに運ばれ、特にsilkヨーロッパEuropeで珍重され、絹の道(きぬのみち)Silk Roadの名称の起源となった。

From China, silk and lacquerware, which are special products, were transported westward, and silk in particular was prized in Europe, giving rise to the name Silk Road.

一方、西方westからはフェルガナ地方Fergana region名馬fine horses(天馬flying horse)や中央アジアCentral AsiaぶどうgrapesローマRomeさんごcorals宝石jewelsガラス器glasswareなどが中国Chinaに運ばれ、ガラス製作glass production技術technologyも伝えられた。

On the other hand, from the west, fine horses (Tenma) from the Fergana region, grapes from Central Asia, corals from Rome, jewels, and glassware were brought to China, along with the technology of glass production.

また、インドの仏教Indian Buddhismガンダーラ美術Gandharan artもこの道をへて中国Chinaに伝来した(1世紀ごろaround the 1st century AD)。

Indian Buddhism and Gandharan art were also introduced to China through this route (around the 1st century AD).


南越国(なんえつこく) Nanyue Province


南越国(なんえつこく) Nanyue Province


趙佗(ちょう・だ) Zhao Tuo


南越国(なんえつこく)Nanyue Province

秦始皇帝(しん・し・こうてい)(チン・シ・ファンディ)Qin Shi Huangdithe first emperor of the Qin dynastyは、広東(カントン)Guangdongからヴェトナム北部地方the northern part of Vietnamに至るまでを征服conqueredして桂林(けいりん)Kweilin象郡(しょうぐん)Xiang County南海(なんかい)Nanhai3three countiesを置いたが、3世紀末the end of the 3rd century BC秦末(しんまつ)the end of the Qin dynasty反乱rebellionに乗じて、中国人Chinese趙佗(ちょう・だ)Zhao Tuo珠江(しゅこう)Pearl River河口mouth番禺(ばんぐう)Panyu(今の広東(カントン)Guangdong)をcapitalとして南越国(なんえつこく)Nanyue Provinceを建て、広東(カントン)Guangdong広西(こうせい)Guangxiからヴェトナム北部地方the northern part of Vietnamを領有した。

The First Emperor of Qin conquered Guilin, Elephant County, and Nanhai Province from Guangdong to the northern part of Vietnam and established three counties, Guilin, Elephant County, and Nanhai. He established Nanyue Province with Panyu (present-day Guangdong) as the capital, and possessed the northern part of Vietnam from Guangdong and Guangxi.

At the end of the 3rd century BC, taking advantage of the rebellion at the end of the Qin dynasty, the Chinese Zhao Tuo made Panyu (now Guangdong) at the mouth of the Pearl River his capital.

初め前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynasty南越王(なんえつおう)King of Nanyueに封じたが、のち不和となり、111111 BC前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynasty武帝(ぶ・てい) Emperor Wu16万の大軍large armyを送って南越国(なんえつこく)Nanyue Provinceを滅ぼし南海郡(なんかいぐん)Nanhai Countyなどの9nine countiesを置いた。

At first, Han ruled Nanyue as King of Nanyue, but later they became discord, and in 111 BC, Emperor Wu of Han sent a large army of 160,000 to destroy Nanyue and set up nine counties, including Nanhai County.

漢民族(かんみんぞく)Han Chineseの勢力が初めてこの地方にまで及んだので、これよりしだいに南方海上の交通southern maritime trafficが開ける糸口になったのである。

As the influence of the Han race reached this region for the first time, it became a clue to open up southern maritime traffic.


南海郡などの9 the nine counties including Nanhai county


南越国(なんえつこく) Nanyue Province


補足supplementary explanation

南海郡などの9

the nine counties including Nanhai county

9the nine countiesの名は、南海(なんかい)Nanhai蒼梧(そうご)Cangwu欝林(うつりん)Yulin合浦(ごうほ)Hepu儋耳(たんじ)Dangmi珠崖(しゅがい)Zhuyai交趾(こうし)Goji九真(きゅうしん)Jiuzhen日南(にちなん)Nichinanをいう。

The names of the nine counties are Nanhai, Cangwu, Ulin, Hepu, Dangmi, Zhuyai, Goji, Jiuzhen, and Nichinan.

このうち交趾(こうし)Goji九真(きゅうしん)Jiuzhen日南(にちなん)Nichinan3郡は現在のヴェトナム領内Vietnam territoryに置かれたものである。

Three of these counties, Kojin, Kyushin, and Nichinan, were placed in present-day Vietnam territory.


古朝鮮(こちょうせん) Gojoseon


戦国の七雄 the Seven Kings of the Warring States

(せい)(チー)Qi(そ)(チュー)Chu(しん)(チン)Qin(えん)(イェン)Yan(かん)(ハン)Han(ぎ)(ウェイ)Wei(ちょう)(ジャオゥ)Zhao


古朝鮮(こちょうせん) Gojoseon


衛氏朝鮮(えいしちょうせん) Wiman Joseon


漢四郡(かん・の・しぐん) Four Commanderies of Han 三韓(さんかん)SamhanThree Hans


漢四郡(かん・の・しぐん) Four Commanderies of Han


漢四郡(かん・の・しぐん) Four Commanderies of Han 三韓(さんかん)SamhanThree Hans


朝鮮と日本 Korea and Japan

朝鮮 Korea

朝鮮北部the northern part of Koreaでは、中国China戦国時代Warring States period中国Chinaから鉄器文明ironware civilizationが伝わり、3世紀 the 3rd century B.C.箕子朝鮮(きし・ちょうせん)Gija Joseonが興り、2世紀ごろaround the 2nd century B.C.には中国Chinaから燕王(えん・おう)King of Yan一族familyが亡命して衛氏朝鮮(えいし・ちょうせん)Wiman Joseonを建てたが、前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han武帝(ぶてい)Emperor Wuはこれを討滅eradicatedして、楽浪(らくろう)Lelang臨屯(りんとん)Lintun玄莵(げんと)Xuantu真番(しんばん)Zhenfan漢四郡(かん・の・しぐん)Four Commanderies of Hanを置いた。

In the northern part of Korea, ironware civilization was introduced from China during the Warring States period of China. In the 3rd century B.C., Minzi Joseon was established, and around the 2nd century B.C., a family of the King of Yan fled from China and established Weizi Joseon. Emperor Wu of the Former Han eradicated it and established four Han counties: Lelang, Lintun, Xuanzhu, and Shinban.

特に平壌(ピョンヤン)Pyongyang付近に置かれた楽浪郡(らくろう・ぐん)Lelang Commanderyは、4世紀初めthe early 4th centuryまで存続し、朝鮮北部northern Koreaにおける中国文化Chinese culture中心地the centerとなった。

In particular, Nakrang County, located near Pyongyang, survived until the early 4th century and became the center of Chinese culture in northern Korea.

また、中国東北地方northeastern Chinaから朝鮮北部northern Koreaにかけていた貊族(はくぞく)Maek peopleは、1世紀後半the second half of the 1st century B.C.E.高句麗(こうくり)(コグリョ)Goguryeoという部族国家tribal stateを形成した。

In the second half of the 1st century B.C.E., the Mii tribe, which spread from northeastern China to northern Korea, formed a tribal state called Goguryeo.

更に朝鮮南部the southern part of Koreaには、3世紀ごろ韓人(かんじん)the Koreansによって馬韓(ばかん)Mahan弁韓(べんかん)Byeonhan辰韓(しんかん)Jinhanのいわゆる三韓(さんかん)SamhanThree Hans)が形成された。

Furthermore, in the southern part of Korea, the so-called Three Hans of Mahan, Byeonhan, and Jinhan were formed by Koreans around the 3rd century.


古朝鮮(こちょうせん) Gojoseon


戦国の七雄 the Seven Kings of the Warring States

(せい)(チー)Qi(そ)(チュー)Chu(しん)(チン)Qin(えん)(イェン)Yan(かん)(ハン)Han(ぎ)(ウェイ)Wei(ちょう)(ジャオゥ)Zhao


補足supplementary explanation

箕子朝鮮(きし・ちょうせん)Gija Joseon

古代朝鮮Ancient Korea伝説上の王国Legendary kingdom

A mythical kingdom in ancient Korea.

(しゅう)(ジョウ)Zhou武王(ぶ・おう)King Wu(いん)(イェン)the Yin Dynastyを滅ぼしたとき、箕子(きし)Jizi朝鮮Koreaに封じ、これより箕子朝鮮(きし・ちょうせん)Gija Joseonが始まったという。

It is said that when King Mu of Zhou destroyed the Yin Dynasty, he confined Mino to Joseon, and thus Mino Joseon began.

衛氏朝鮮(えいし・ちょうせん)Wiman Joseonが建国されたとき(190年ごろaround 190 B.C.)、箕子(きし)Jizi後裔descendantと称する朝鮮王King of Joseon箕準(き・じゅん)Ji Junを今日の平壌(ピョンヤン)Pyongyangの地で滅ぼした。

When the Oishi Joseon was established (around 190 B.C.), he destroyed King Gijun of Joseon, who claimed to be a descendant of Gija, in the land of today's Pyongyang.


漢委奴国王印(かんの・わの・なの・こくおう・いん)King of Na gold seal

Seal of the King of the Na state of the Wa of the Han Dynasty


日本 Japan

日本Japan朝鮮Koreaを通じて中国文化Chinese cultureの影響を受けた。

Japan was also influenced by Chinese culture through Korea.

稲作の開始the start of rice cultivation青銅器や鉄器の使用the use of bronze and ironwareなどにより、社会の発展social developmentが見られ、弥生文化(やよい・ぶんか)Yayoi cultureが成立した。

With the start of rice cultivation and the use of bronze and ironware, social development was seen, and the Yayoi culture was established.

(かん)during the Han dynastyには日本Japan楽浪郡(らくろう・ぐん)Lelang Commanderyとの間にかなりの往来があったらしく、『漢書(かんじょ)Book of Han 地理志(ちりし)Treatise on Geography 後漢書(ごかんじょ)Book of the Later Han 東夷列伝(とうい・れつでん)Treatise on the Dongyi日本Japanに関する記事が見える。

There seems to have been considerable traffic between Japan and Lelang County during the Han dynasty, and articles about Japan can be found in the Geography of the "Book of the Han Dynasty" and the Toiden of the "Book of the Later Han Dynasty."

また、江戸時代during the Edo period九州Kyushuで発見された漢委奴国王(かんの・わの・なの・こくおう)the King of the Na state of the Wa of the Han Dynasty金印golden sealは、後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynasty光武帝(こうぶ・てい)Emperor Guangwu日本からの使者messenger from Japanに託したものと考えられており、当時の交渉the negotiations at that timeを物語る貴重な資料である。

In addition, the golden seal of the King of the Han Dynasty, which was discovered in Kyushu during the Edo period, is believed to have been entrusted to a messenger from Japan by Emperor Guangwu of the Later Han Dynasty, and is a valuable document that tells the story of the negotiations at that time.


邪馬台国(やまたいこく) Yamatai-koku


補足supplementary explanation

『漢書』地理志の日本記事

Article related to Japan in Treatise on Geography of “Book of Han”

漢書(かんじょ)Book of Han』(前漢書(ぜんかんしょ)Book of Former Hanともいう)地理志(ちりし)Treatise on Geography燕地Yanchiarticleに「楽浪海中in the Sea of Lelang倭人Japanese peopleあり、分かれて百余国more than 100 countriesとなる。歳時をもって来りてcome with his age献見make a dedicationすという」とある。

"Kansho" (also known as "Zenkansho") has an article about Yanchi in Geography, ``There are Japanese people in the Sea of Lelang, divided into more than 100 countries.

It is said that he will come with his age and make a dedication.

これが中国史書Chinese history booksに見える日本関係記事article related to Japanの最初で、この後にくるのが有名な 三国志(さんごくし)Records of the Three Kingdoms のなかの魏志(ぎし)Wèi zhì, Biography of Wei倭人伝(わじんでん)Wō rén chuán, Wajinden邪馬台国(やまたいこく)Xié mǎ tái guó, Yamatai-kokuに関する記事である。

This is the first article related to Japan that can be seen in Chinese history books, and after this is the article about Yamataikoku in the famous Gishi Wajinden in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms.


絹の道(きぬ・の・みち) Silk Road


絹の道(きぬ・の・みち) Silk Road


整理arrangement

東西交渉史と三大交通路

The History of East-West Negotiations and

the Three Major Traffic Routes

絹の道(きぬ・の・みち)Silk Road

洛陽(らくよう)(ルオヤン)Luoyang長安(ちょうあん)(チャンアン)Chang'anから甘粛(かんしゅく)(カンスー)Gansuをへて、敦煌(とんこう)(ドゥンファン)Dunhuangから西域南道(せいいき・なんどう)Xiyunándào, Western Region South Roadまたは西域北道(せいいき・ほくどう)Xiyuběidào, Western Region North Road天山南路(てんざん・なんろ)TianshanNánlù, Tianshan South Road)を通り、パミール高原Pamir Plateauを越えてイランIranメソポタミアMesopotamiaをへて地中海沿岸Mediterranean coastに達し、東西文化圏East and West cultural spheres最短距離shortest distanceで結ぶ。

From Luoyang/Chang'an through Gansu, from Dunhuang through the Western Region South Road or Western Region North Road (Tianshan South Road), crossing the Pamir Plateau, Iran and Mesopotamia, reaching the Mediterranean coast, connecting the East and West cultural spheres in the shortest distance.


フェルディナント・フォン・リヒトホーフェン Ferdinand von Richthofen


eastからローマRomeに運ばれた主な商品main commodity(きぬ)silkであったところから近代modern timesになって与えられた名称name

The name given in modern times because the main commodity brought to Rome from the east was silk.

ドイツの地理学者German geographerリヒトホーフェンRichthofen1833年~1905年)の命名とされる。

It is said to have been named by the German geographer Richthofen.

東西陸上交通land transportation between the east and west幹線trunk lineとして重要な役割important roleを果たし、東西貿易の利benefit of east-west tradeを目指して諸民族の抗争の場place of conflict between various ethnic groupsとなり、多くの国家many nationsが興亡した。

It played an important role as a trunk line for land transportation between the east and west, and became a place of conflict between various ethnic groups for the benefit of east-west trade, and many nations rose and fell.


アレクサンドロス大王 Alexander the Great ペルシア遠征 Persian Expedition


Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent


西方部分western partアケメネス朝ペルシアAchaemenid Persia統一unificationによって早くから開け、特にアレクサンドロス大王Alexander the Great東征eastern campaignインドIndiaへの途が開かれた。

The western part opened early with the unification of Achaemenid Persia, especially with Alexander the Great's eastern campaign, which opened the way to India.


オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states 西域36 36 countries in the western region


オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states 西域36 36 countries in the western region


オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states 西域36 36 countries in the western region


東半部分eastern half武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wu西域経営management of the western region以来、急速に開けた。

The eastern half opened up rapidly after Emperor Wu's management of the western region.

ことに天山山脈(てんざん・さんみゃく)Tian Shan Mountainsからの雪解け水melted snowによるタリム川the Tarim Riverに沿う天山南路(てんざん・なんろ)TianshanNánlù, Tianshan South Roadは、古来最も重要な交通路the most important transportation routeで、漢代(かんだい)during the Han Dynasty西域36the 36 countries in the Western Regionsといわれるオアシス国家群the oasis nationsの多くが栄えた地域で、漢王朝(かんおうちょう)the Han Dynasty東西文化の交流cultural exchange between the East and the Westを図るためにはこれを服属subjugatedさせなければならなかったのである。

In particular, the Tianshan South Road, which runs along the Tarim River with melted snow from the Tianshan Mountains, has been the most important transportation route since ancient times. Many of the oasis nations, said to be the 36 countries in the Western Region, flourished during the Han Dynasty, and the Han Dynasty was the center of cultural exchange between the East and the West. In order to achieve this, it had to be subjugated.


クシャーナ朝 クシャン朝 Kushan dynasty


クシャーナ朝 Kushan dynasty 貴霜朝(きそうちょう) Guishuang dynasty)(30年~375年)


次いでクシャン朝the Kushan dynastyの発展によって中国ChinaインドIndiaとが結ばれて、東アジアEast Asia西アジアWest Asia南アジアSouth Asia三文化圏the three cultural spheresが直結することとなった。

Subsequently, the development of the Kushan dynasty connected China and India, and the three cultural spheres of East Asia, West Asia, and South Asia became directly connected.

なお、天山山脈(てんざん・さんみゃく)Tian Shan Mountains北麓northern footに沿って走る天山北路(てんざん・ほくろ)TianshanBěilù, Tianshan North Roadもまた絹の道(きぬ・の・みち)Silk Roadの一つであるが、それはまた、次に記した草原の道grassland roadsの一つでもある。

The Tianshan North Road, which runs along the northern foot of the Tianshan Mountains, is also one of the silk roads, but it is also one of the grassland roads described below.


草原の道 Grassland Road


絹の道(きぬ・の・みち) Silk Road


草原の道 Grassland Road

草原の道Grassland Roadは、内陸の草原地帯the inland grasslandsを結ぶもので、中国北辺northern China長城Great Wall地帯から、モンゴル高原Mongolian Plateauアルタイ山麓the foothills of the Altai Mountainsキルギス高原Kyrgyz Highlandsをへて、南ロシアsouthern Russia草原地帯the grasslandsに至る。

The Grassland Road connects the inland grasslands, from the Great Wall in northern China, through the Mongolian Plateau, the foothills of the Altai Mountains, and the Kyrgyz Highlands, to the grasslands of southern Russia.

この地帯で活躍したのは、7世紀4世紀 the 7th to 4th century B.C.スキタイScythiaに始まるいわゆる騎馬民族equestrian racesで、匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnu月氏(げっし)Yuezhi烏孫(うそん)Wusun突厥(とっけつ)GöktürksウイグルUyghursなどで、モンゴルthe Mongol西征expedition to the westもこの路を通って行われた。

The so-called equestrian races that started in Scythia in the 7th to 4th century B.C. The Xiongnu, Yuezhi, Wusun, Turkmenistan, Uyghur, etc., also used this road for the Mongol expedition to the west.


海の道 Sea road


海の道 Sea road


海の道 Sea road

海の道the sea routeとはいうまでもなく、インドIndia媒介mediumとする南海貿易路South Sea Trade Routeで、南中国South Chinaから東南アジアSoutheast AsiaをへてインドIndiaに達する東方航路eastern routeと、地中海Mediterranean Seaから紅海Red Seaをへて、インド洋Indian Oceanを越えてインドIndiaに至る西方航路western routeとが結ばれる。

Needless to say, the sea route is the South Sea Trade Route, which uses India as a medium, the eastern route from South China through Southeast Asia to reach India, and the western route from the Mediterranean Sea through the Red Sea, across the Indian Ocean to India. connected to the route.

(かん)HanローマRome拡大expansionによって発達し、特に(とう)Tangイスラム帝国Islamic empires興隆rise以来、イラン人the Iraniansアラビア人the Arabsなどが往来して大いに繁栄し、陸路land routesに代わって東西交通の中心the center of east-west trafficとなった。

Developed with the expansion of Han and Rome, especially since the rise of the Tang and Islamic empires, Iranians and Arabs came and went and prospered greatly, replacing land routes as the center of east-west traffic.



(かん)(ハン)の官制 Han government system


丞相(じょう・しょう) Chéngxiàng, Chancellor 行政 administrative


太尉(たい・い) Tàiwèi, Grand Commandant 軍事 military


御史大夫(ぎょし・たいふ) Yùshǐ Dàfū, Grand Secretary 監察 Inspector


6節 Section Six

中国古典文明と古代帝国

Chinese Classical Civilization and

Ancient Empire

6 漢時代の社会と文化

Han dynasty society and culture

漢時代の社会 Han dynasty society

中央官制 Central Government

(かん)Hanでは初め(しん)の官制Qin government systemにならって、丞相(じょうしょう)Chéngxiàng, Chancellor行政administrative)・太尉(たい・い)Tàiwèi, Grand Commandant軍事military)・御史大夫(ぎょし・たいふ)Yùshǐ Dàfū, Grand Secretary監察Inspector)を置いたが、後には司徒(しと)Sītú, Minister of the Masses司馬(しば)Sīmǎ, Minister of War司空(しくう)Sīkōng, Minister of Worksと改称し(三公(さんこう)Sāngōng, Three Ducal Ministers)、その後三公(さんこう)Sāngōngの上に上公(じょうこう)Janggong太師(たいし)Tàishī, Grand Preceptor太傅(たいふ)Tàifù, Grand Tutor太保(たいほ)Tàibǎo, Grand Protector)ができ、別に天子(てんし)Tiānzǐ, Heavenly Sonsの側近にあって実権をもつ尚書(しょうしょ)Shangshu中書(ちゅうしょ)Zhongshuなどの(ふ)ができ、三公(さんこう)Sāngōngの実権を奪った。

In the beginning, the Han system followed the Qin government system, with the ranks of Chief Minister (administrative), Grand Lieutenant (military), and Chief of Staff (Inspector). In 1914, Janggong (Taishi, Daifu, and Taiho) were established, and separate governments such as Shosho and Chusho, who were close to Tenshi and had real power, were established and took over the real power of the three nobles.


郡県制(ぐん・けん・せい) county-prefecture system


郡国制(ぐん・こく・せい) jùnguózhì, county and state system


地方官制 Local Government

初めは郡国制(ぐん・こく・せい)jùnguózhì, county and state systemを行った。

At first, the county system was implemented.

郡国制(ぐん・こく・せい)jùnguózhì, county and state systemにおける諸王the kingsは、領内の軍事権military rights課税権taxation rightsをもっていたが、中央から派遣された官僚bureaucrats政治politicsに当り完全な独立国completely independentではなかった。

In the county government system, the kings had military and taxation rights within their territories, but the government was not completely independent as bureaucrats dispatched from the central government took charge of politics.


呉楚七国の乱(ごそ・しちこく・の・らん) Rebellion of the Seven States of Wu Chu


呉楚七国の乱(ごそ・しちこく・の・らん) Rebellion of the Seven States of Wu Chu


5代の文帝(ぶん・てい)Emperor Wenや第6代の景帝(けい・てい)Emperor Jing有力諸王the influential kings封土(ほうど)fēngtǔ, fiefsを削減しようと図り、更に呉楚七国の乱(ごそ・しちこく・の・らん)Rebellion of the Seven States of Wu Chu154154 B.C.)の後にはますます封建的要素feudal elementsを弱めて中央集権centralized powerの実をあげ、武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wuの時代には全国一様に郡県制(ぐん・けん・せい)jùnXiànzhì, county and prefecture systemとなった。

The 5th Emperor Wen and the 6th Emperor Jing attempted to reduce the fiefdoms of the influential kings, and after the Wu Chu Seven Kingdoms Rebellion (154 B.C.), the feudal elements were further weakened and centralized power was achieved. In the era of Emperor Wu, the county and prefecture system was applied uniformly throughout the country.


太守(たい・しゅ) Tàishǒu


また(ぐん)jùn, county太守(たい・しゅ)Tàishǒu)・(けん)Xiàn, prefecture(りょう)líng(ちょう)cháng, chief)の下に(きょう)xiāng三老(さんろう)sānlǎo, three elders)・(り)里正(りせい)Lǐ zhèng)が置かれ、これを郷里制(ごうりせい)(きょうりせい)xiānglǐzhì the home village systemといった。

In addition, under the county (deputy governor) and prefecture (rei/chief), go (three elders) and sato (sato) were placed, and this was called the home village system.


武帝(ぶ・てい) Emperor Wu (在位前141年~前87年)


郷挙里選(きょう・きょ・り・せん) Xiāng Jǔ Lǐ xuǎn, the election of the towns and villages (郷より挙げ、里から選ぶ)、略して選挙(せんきょ) xuǎnjǔ, election


官吏登用法 Government Official Appointment Law

選挙 Election

前漢(ぜんかん)時代Former Han dynastyには官吏(かんり)government officials任用appointment地方の自治local autonomyを重んじ、(きょう)xiāng(り)有力者influential people地方長官local governorと合議の上で推薦recommendedした。

In the Former Han dynasty, local autonomy was valued in the appointment of government officials, and influential people in the township and village recommended it after consulting with the local governor.

これを郷挙里選(きょう・きょ・り・せん)Xiāng Jǔ Lǐ xuǎn, the election of the towns and villages(郷より挙げ、里から選ぶ)、略して選挙(せんきょ)xuǎnjǔ, electionといった。

This was called the township election, or election for short.

後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynastyには儒学(じゅがく)Confucianismが盛んになり、孝廉(こうれん)Xiaolian明経(みょうぎょう)Ming Jingなど多くの科が置かれ、地方長官local governorsから選ばれて中央へ集まった人材は形式的な試験を受けて採否が決定された。

Confucianism became popular in the Later Han Dynasty, and many departments such as Koran and Ming Jing were established, and people who were selected by local governors and gathered at the central government were given formal examinations to determine whether they were hired or not.

(かん)(ハン)Han Dynasty官吏登用法method of appointing government officialsは他選本位である点が、後世の科挙(かきょ)kējǔ, Imperial examinationと異なる。

The Han Dynasty's method of appointing government officials is different from later imperial examinations in that it was based on other elections.


(かん)(ハン) Han徴兵制(ちょうへいせい) yìwù bīngyìzhì, Conscription


兵制 Military system

(かん)(ハン)の軍隊Han armyは原則として徴兵制(ちょうへいせい)yìwù bīngyìzhì, Conscriptionで、民衆は23歳より55歳に至るまで2年間の兵役(へいえき)military serviceに服した。

As a general rule, the Han army was conscripted, and the commoners served for two years from age 23 to age 55.

兵役(へいえき)military serviceに当ったものは1年間は国都national capitalに上がり、天子(てんし)Tiānzǐ, Heavenly Sons儀杖(ぎじょう)ceremonial staff宮城(きゅうじょう)Imperial Palace守護the guardianとなった(正卒(せいそつ)zhēngzú)。

Those who served in the military were sent to the national capital for one year and served as the ceremonial staff of the Tenshi or the guardian of Miyagi (regular graduate).

他の1年間は辺境守備frontier defenseに当った(戍卒(じゅそつ)shùzú)。

For the other year, he was in charge of the frontier defense (shoso).


代田法(だいでんほう) dàitiánfǎ


産業の発達 Industrial development

(かん)(ハン)Han Dynasty統一reunificationにより農村秩序rural orderが回復されると、社会の生産力productivity of societyは日一日と発展した。

After the reunification of the Han Dynasty restored rural order, the productivity of society grew day by day.

武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wuのとき、一年ごとにうねと溝のところを代える新農法new farming method代田法(だいでんほう)dàitiánfǎ)が創始されるようになり、耕作・草取り・種播きなどの農具の進歩Advances in agricultural tools水利灌漑の発達development of water irrigationもあって、農業生産力Agricultural productivityは大いに高まった。

During the reign of Emperor Wu, a new farming method (the Shirota method) was instituted in which the ridges and grooves were replaced every year. Advances in agricultural tools such as cultivation, weeding, and seed sowing, as well as the development of water irrigation, Agricultural productivity has greatly increased.


saltiron専売制(せんばいせい) Government monopoly


手工業handicraftでも、製鉄製塩iron and salt manufacturing官営事業government-run businessesとして多数の刑徒prisoners奴隷slaves徭役労働者forced laborersを使用して盛んになった。

In the handicraft industry, iron and salt manufacturing flourished as government-run businesses using a large number of prisoners, slaves, and forced laborers.

絹織物silk fabrics漆器lacquerwareなどの発達も目ざましかった。

The development of silk fabrics and lacquerware was also remarkable.


前漢(ぜんかん) Former Han Dynasty 西漢(せいかん) Western Han Dynasty


これら諸産業industriesの発達につれて、商業commerceは全国的に行われるようになり、長安(ちょうあん)(チャンアン)Changan洛陽(らくよう)(ルオヤン)Luoyang成都(せいと)(チェンドゥ)Chengdu邯鄲(かんたん)(ハンダン)Handanなどは商業の中心地centers of commerceとして栄えた。

As these industries developed, commerce came to take place nationwide, and Changan, Luoyang, Chengdu, and Handan prospered as centers of commerce.


五銖銭(ごしゅ・せん) Wu Zhu cash coin


(かん)(ハン)In the early Han dynastyには、民間で貨幣を鋳造minting coinsして富を築いた者も出たが、武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wuはこれを禁止し、官鋳の五銖銭(ごしゅ・せん)Wu Zhu cash coinを通用させた。

In the early Han dynasty, some people built their wealth by minting coins privately, but Emperor Wu forbade this and allowed government-cast Wuxi coins to be used.


鉄製農具 iron farming tools


豪族の台頭 Rise of the Nobility

春秋戦国時代(しゅんじゅう・せんごく・じだい)the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods以来、農業生産力agricultural productivity発展developmentにより、古い村落共同体old village communitiesが崩れ、商人merchants地方有力者local influential peopleによる大土地所有large land ownershipが進み、この傾向は(かん)(ハン)Han Dynastyにはますます著しくなった。

Since the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, the development of agricultural productivity has led to the collapse of old village communities and the promotion of large land ownership by merchants and local influential people.

そこで政府government土地land奴隷slavesの数を制限しようとして、限田策plan to limit the number of rice fieldsを実施したが効果はあがらず、有力者influential people大土地large tracts of land多数の隷属民a large number of slavesを使役し、地方豪族local ruling familiesとして大きな勢力great powerをもつようになった。

Therefore, the government tried to limit the land and the number of slaves by implementing a plan to limit the number of rice fields, but it was not effective, and the influential people used large tracts of land and a large number of slaves, and came to have great power as local ruling families.

彼らは前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynasty末から台頭し後漢(ごかん)Later Han dynasty時代には名門prestigious familyとして尊敬され、更に開墾land reclamationなどにより耕地arable landを拡張した。

They emerged from the end of the Former Han Dynasty and were respected as a prestigious family during the Later Han dynasty, and further expanded their arable land through land reclamation.


郷挙里選(きょう・きょ・り・せん) Xiāng Jǔ Lǐ xuǎn, the election of the towns and villages (郷より挙げ、里から選ぶ)、略して選挙(せんきょ) xuǎnjǔ, election


ことに後漢(ごかん)は、この豪族this ruling familyの支持・協力によって成立したので、豪族the ruling family勢力the powerはますます強くなった。

In particular, the Later Han Dynasty was established with the support and cooperation of this ruling family, so the power of the ruling family grew stronger.

しかも(かん)(ハン)Han dynastyには、官吏government officials地方長官local governors推薦recommendationによって任用したため(郷挙里選(きょう・きょ・り・せん)Xiāng Jǔ Lǐ xuǎn, the election of the towns and villages(郷より挙げ、里から選ぶ))、豪族local ruling families官吏government officialsとなって地方政治local politicsをも左右した。

Moreover, in the Han dynasty, government officials were appointed based on the recommendation of local governors (employment of local governors), so local ruling families became government officials and influenced local politics.

農民peasantsは、政府の莫大な軍事費military expenditures支弁のための過重な負担excessive burden軍役military serviceとに疲弊し、また、大土地所有者large land ownersの圧迫を受けて没落し、豪族local ruling familyのもとに走って隷属的農民subservient farmers佃戸(でんこ)diànhù)になるものが多かった。

The peasants were exhausted by the excessive burden of the government's military expenditures and the military service. were many.

The peasants were exhausted by the government's enormous military expenditures and military service.

In addition, many of them fell into ruin under the pressure of large land owners, and became subservient farmers (tsukudado) after joining the local ruling family.



董仲舒(とう・ちゅうじょ) Dong Zhongshu


漢時代の文化 Han dynasty culture

儒学の成立 Establishment of Confucianism

前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wuは、統一国家unified nation威儀dignityを整え、その支配を強化するため、董仲舒(とう・ちゅうじょ)Dong Zhongshu公羊学説(くよう・がくせつ)Gongyang Theoryを用いて儒学(じゅがく)Confucianism官学(かんがく)official studyとした。

Emperor Wu of the Former Han Dynasty adopted Confucianism as an official study, using Dong Zhongshu's Gongyang Theory, in order to establish the dignity of a unified nation and strengthen its rule.


五経博士(ごきょう・はかせ) Wǔjīng bóshì, Doctor of Five Classics


中央の太学(たいがく)Taixue, Greatest Study or Learning五経博士(ごきょう・はかせ)Wǔjīng bóshì, Doctor of Five Classicsを置き儒教(じゅきょう)Confucianism経典(けいてん)Jīngdiǎn, scriptures五経(ごきょう)Wǔjīng, Five Classics)を講義させ、地方にも学校を作り、儒学的教養Confucian educationをもって官吏government officialsの養成を図った。

The Gokyo hakase was assigned to Taigaku in the center to give lectures on the Confucian scriptures (the Five Classics), and schools were also built in rural areas to train government officials with Confucian education.


光武帝(こうぶ・てい) Emperor Guangwu 劉秀(りゅうしゅう) Liu Xiu (在位25年~57年)


更に、後漢(ごかん)Later Han光武帝(こうぶてい)Emperor Guangwuの保護・奨励によって儒学(じゅがく)Confucianismは完全に他の諸子百家(しょし・ひゃっか)zhūzǐ bǎijiā, Hundred Schools of Thoughtの学を圧倒して、長く中国思想Chinese thought主流mainstreamとなった。

Furthermore, under the protection and encouragement of Emperor Guangwu of the Later Han, Confucianism completely overwhelmed the learning of other 100 families and became the mainstream of Chinese thought for a long time.

こうして国家の学問national academic fieldとしての地位を独占した儒学(じゅがく)Confucianismは、それ以上の発展をすることなく固定化し、(しん)(チン)Qin始皇帝(し・こうてい)(シ・ファンディ)Shi Huangdithe first emperor of a unified China焚書(ふんしょ)Burning of booksによって失われた古典classics復旧restoreとその注釈commentに努めた。

In this way, Confucianism, which monopolized the position as a national academic field, was fixed without further development, and endeavored to restore and comment on the classics lost due to the burning of books by the first emperor of Qin.


馬融(ば・ゆう) Ma Rong


鄭玄(じょう・げん) Zheng Xuan


これを訓詁学(くんこ・がく)xùngǔxué, the study of preceptsといい、後漢(ごかん)Later Han馬融(ば・ゆう)Ma Rong鄭玄(じょう・げん)Zheng Xuanらによって大成された。

This is known as the study of precepts, and was perfected by Ma Yuu and Zheng Xuan of the Later Han Dynasty.


許慎(きょ・しん) Xu Shen


また後漢(ごかん)Later Han許慎(きょ・しん)Xu Shen古典(こてん)classicsを読むために必要な『説文解字(せつもん・かいじ)Shuowen Jiezi』という字典(じてん)dictionaryを作った。

In addition, Xu Shin of the Later Han created a dictionary called "Setsumon Kaiji", which is necessary for reading the classics.

こうして中国古典学Chinese classical studies基礎foundationが確立した。

Thus, the foundation of Chinese classical studies was established.


訓詁学(くんこ・がく) xùngǔxué, the study of precepts


補足supplementary explanation

訓詁学(くんこ・がく) Xunguxue, the study of precepts

経典(けいてん)Jīngdiǎn, scriptures解釈interpretation文字characters校定(こうてい)proofreadingを中心とする学問study

A study centered on the interpretation of scriptures and proofreading of characters.

(かん)(ハン)Han dynastyには経典(けいてん)Jīngdiǎn, scripturesのテキストに(かん)(ハン)Han dynasty隷書(れいしょ)Lìshū, Clerical scriptで書かれたもの(今文(きんぶん)New Text Confucianism)と、(しん)(チン)Qin以前の古い字体old styleで書かれたもの(古文(こぶん)Tadpole script)とがあり、どちらがよいか議論された。

In the Han Dynasty, there were two types of scripture texts, one written in the Han dynasty clerical script (Kinbun) and the other written in an old style before the Qin dynasty (Kobun), and it was debated which one was better.


司馬遷(しば・せん) Sima Qian


班固(はん・こ) Ban Gu


歴史学の成立 Formation of historical studies

(かん)(ハン)Han dynastyには統一国家が完成し、漢民族(かんみんぞく)Han Chineseの勢力が四方にひろがったので、民族意識が高まり、すぐれた歴史書が著された。

In the Han Dynasty, a unified nation was completed, and the influence of the Han people spread in all directions.

なかでも前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynasty武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wu時代の司馬遷(しば・せん)Sima Qianの『史記(しき)Shiji130巻と後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynasty和帝(わ・てい)Emperor He時代の班固(はん・こ)Ban Guの『漢書(かんじょ)Book of Han100巻は、ともに紀伝体(きでんたい)jìzhuàntǐ, biographical styleで書かれ中国正史Chinese official historyの代表作となっている。

Among them, the 130-volume "History" by Sima Qian in the era of Emperor Wu of the Former Han and the 100-volume "Book of Han" by Han Gu in the era of Emperor Wa in the Later Han, both written in biographical style, are representative works of Chinese official history.


李陵(り・りょう) Li Ling


補足supplementary explanation

司馬遷(しば・せん) Sima Qian

145年ごろ~前86年ごろ。

145 BC to 86 BC.

前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynasty歴史家historian

Former Han historian.

武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wuに仕えて太史令(たい・し・れい)tài shǐ lìngとなる。

Served Emperor Wu and became Taishirei.

友人の李陵(り・りょう)Li Ling匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuに降ったことを弁護して宮刑(きゅうけい)castration(断種の刑)に処せられたが、父・司馬談(しば・たん)Sima Tan遺業legacyである歴史historyに没頭して『史記(しき)Shiji』を完成した。

He defended his friend Li Ling's surrender to the Xiongnu and was sentenced to imprisonment (sterilization), but he devoted himself to his father's legacy of history and completed "Shiki".


二十四史(にじゅうし・し) Twenty-Four Histories


補足supplementary explanation

正史(せいし) Zhèngshǐ, Orthodox Histories, Official History

中国China歴代王朝the successive dynastiesを代表する歴史historyで、まとめて二十四史(にじゅうし・し)Twenty-Four Historiesと呼ばれる。

It is a history that represents the successive dynasties of China, and is collectively called the 24th history or the 25th history.

皇帝emperor事績achievementsを中心とした本紀(ほんぎ)běnjì, Basic Annals個人の伝記personal biographiesを書いた列伝(れつでん)lièzhuàn, Ranked Biographiesなどからできているので紀伝体(きでん・たい)jìzhuàntǐ, biographical styleと呼ばれる。

It is called kidentai because it consists of honki, which focuses on the achievements of the emperor, and retsuden, which contains personal biographies.

また『史記(しき)Shiji』が五帝(ご・てい)Five Emperorsから前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynasty武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wu時代まで書かれた通史(つうし)Tōngshǐ, Comprehensive historyであるのに対して、『漢書(かんじょ)Book of Han』は前漢(ぜんかん)時代Former Han eraのことだけ書かれた断代史(だんだい・し)Duàndàishǐ, Dynastic historyである。

Also, while "Shiji" is a comprehensive history written from the five emperors to the era of Emperor Wu in the Former Han dynasty, "Kansho" is a complete history written only for the Former Han era.


紀伝体(きでん・たい) jìzhuàntǐ, biographical style


補足supplementary explanation

紀伝体(きでん・たい) jìzhuàntǐ, biographical style

皇帝emperor事績achievementsを中心とした本紀(ほんぎ)běnjì, Basic Annalsと、個人individuals伝記biographiesを書いた列伝(れつでん)lièzhuàn, Ranked Biographies、およびtablesmotivesなどから構成される歴史記述historical description体裁format

The format of the historical description consists of the honki, which focuses on the achievements of the emperor, and the biographies of individuals, as well as tables and motives.


老子(ろう・し) Lao Zi


荘子(そう・し) Zhuang Zi


張角(ちょう・かく) Zhang Jue


張陵(ちょう・りょう) Zhang Ling


道教(どうきょう)の源流 Origin of Taoism

社会不安social unrestが激しくなった後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynasty末ごろ、民間信仰folk beliefsを中心に老荘思想(ろうそう・しそう)Lao Zhuang thought, Taoist philosophy五行思想(ごぎょう・しそう)Wuxing philosophy讖緯説(しんい・せつ)Chenwei theory予言説(よげん・せつ)prophecy theory)などが結びついて、張角(ちょう・かく)Zhang Jue太平道(たいへい・どう)Way of the Taiping張陵(ちょう・りょう)Zhang Ling五斗米道(ごとべい・どう)Way of the Five Pecks of Riceなどの秘密宗教secret religionsが生まれ、生活に苦しむ民間among the poor peopleにひろまった。

Around the end of the Later Han Dynasty, when social unrest intensified, Lao Zhuang thought, five elements thought, and prophetic theory (prophecy theory) were combined mainly with folk beliefs, and secret religions such as Zhang Jiao's Taiping Road and Zhang Daoling's Wutomai Road were developed. It was born and spread among the poor people.

ときには暴動の中心the center of riotsとなり、また後世中国社会Chinese society流行popularした道教(どうきょう)の源流the source of Taoismとなった。

It was sometimes the center of riots, and also became the source of Taoism, which became popular in later Chinese society.


讖緯説(しんい・せつ) Chenwei theory


補足supplementary explanation

讖緯説(しんい・せつ) Chenwei theory

予言説(よげん・せつ) prophecy theory

(しん)Chen予言prophecyで、(い)weiよこ糸weft)は経(たて糸warp)に対する語で経書(けいしょ)scripturesを補うものとされた。

is a prophecy, and woo (weft) is a word for warp (warp) and supplements the scriptures.


王莽(おう・もう)(ワン・メン) Wang Mang (在位8年~23年)


王莽(おう・もう)(ワン・メン)Wang Mang帝位throneを奪うときにこれを利用し、後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynasty光武帝(こうぶ・てい)Emperor Guangwuもこれを愛好したので後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynastyに広く流行した。

Wang Mang used it when he usurped the throne, and Emperor Guangwu of the Later Han also liked it, so it became popular in the Later Han.


太平道(たいへい・どう) Way of the Taiping


五斗米道(ごとべい・どう) Way of the Five Pecks of Rice


補足supplementary explanation

太平道(たいへい・どう) Way of the Taiping

五斗米道(ごとべい・どう) Way of the Five Pecks of Rice

ともに祈祷prayersまじないspellsによって病気を直すcuring illnessesと称して信徒believersを集めた。

Both gathered believers under the pretext of curing illnesses through prayers and spells.

五斗米道(ごとべい・どう)Wǔ Dǒu Mǐ Dào, Way of the Five Pecks of Rice病人the sickが直ると五斗Wǔ Dǒuわが国Japan55 sho)のriceを出させたのでこう呼んだ。

It was called five dou rice road because when the sick were cured, five sho (5 sho in Japan) of rice was served.


(ふ) Fu, rhapsody


篆書(てんしょ) Seal script


楷書(かいしょ) kǎishū, Regular script (左)

隷書(れいしょ) Lìshū, Clerical script (右)


文学 Literature

(かん)(ハン)Han dynastyには 史記(しき)Shiji 名文famous sentencesに代表されるような散文proseが発達するとともに、(ふ)Fu, rhapsodyと呼ばれる美文体beautiful writing styleが成立した。

In the Han Dynasty, along with the development of prose as typified by the famous sentences in "Shiki," a beautiful writing style called Fu was established.

また、文字も(しん)(チン)Qin dynasty篆書(てんしょ)Seal script(しゅう)(ジョウ)金文(きんぶん)Chinese bronze inscriptionsを起源として、戦国時代(せんごくじだい)に発達して整理され、公式書体とされた書体を指す。)に替わって筆写に便利な隷書(れいしょ)Lìshū, Clerical scriptが普及した。

In addition, clerical script, which is convenient for handwriting, became popular in place of the seal script of the Qin dynasty.

こうして、今日の漢字Chinese characters楷書(かいしょ)kǎishū, Regular script)と大差ない字体character styleがこのころ形成された。

In this way, a character style that was not much different from today's Chinese characters (kaisho) was formed around this time.


竹簡(ちくかん) Bamboo slips


紙の発明 The invention of paper

蔡倫(さい・りん) Cai Lun


紙の発明 The invention of paper


美術・工芸Arts and Crafts

これまで中国China書写writingに用いられていた竹の札Bamboo tags木簡(もっかん)Wooden slips竹簡(ちくかん)Bamboo slips)は重くて不便heavy and inconvenientであり、silk高価expensiveなため不適unsuitableであった。

Bamboo tags (wood strips and bamboo strips) that have been used for writing in China so far are heavy and inconvenient, and silk is expensive and unsuitable.


蔡倫(さい・りん) Cai Lun


後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynasty蔡倫(さい・りん)Cai Lunは、ぼろ布ragsなど廃物waste materialsを利用して、紙を発明inventing paperすることに成功succeededした。

Cai Lun of the Later Han dynasty succeeded in inventing paper by using waste materials such as rags.

その後しだいに改良されて、今日のような紙the paper we see todayになったのである。

After that, it was gradually improved to become the paper we see today.

紙の発明The invention of paperは、中国Chinaにおける文化culture発達developmentに大きな貢献contributedをしただけでなく、やがて西アジアWest Asia北アフリカNorth AfricaをへてヨーロッパEuropeに伝わり、世界文化史上the history of world culture重大な意義great significanceをもつに至った。

The invention of paper not only contributed greatly to the development of culture in China, but eventually spread to Europe via West Asia and North Africa, and came to have great significance in the history of world culture.


武氏祠(ぶし・し) Wǔshìcí, Wu Family Shrines画像石(がぞうせき)Hua-xiang-shiに描かれた黄帝(こう・てい) Yellow Emperor


産業の発達development of industryに伴って絹織物silk fabrics漆器lacquerware銅鏡bronze mirrors画像石(がぞうせき)Hua-xiang-shiなどの製作技術manufacturing techniquesが進歩した。

Along with the development of industry, manufacturing techniques for silk fabrics, lacquerware, bronze mirrors, and image stones advanced.

これらの工芸品craftsは、モンゴルMongoliaノイン・ウラNoin Ura朝鮮Korea楽浪郡(らくろう・ぐん)Lelang Commandery遺跡relicsを初め、近年は中国各地various parts of Chinaから発掘された多くの遺物relicsによって明らかにされている。

These crafts have been revealed by many relics excavated from various parts of China in recent years, including Noin Ura in Mongolia and Nakrang in Korea.


張衡(ちょう・こう) Zhang Heng


張仲景(ちょう・ちゅうけい) Zhang Zhongjing


華陀(か・だ) Hua Tuo


科学 Science

また、後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynasty科学者scientist張衡(ちょう・こう)Zhang Hengによって、天体観測用の機械astronomical observation equipment地震計seismometers発明inventedされ、暦法(れきほう)the calendar system改正revisionに貢献した。

Later Han scientist Zhang Heng invented astronomical observation equipment and seismometers, contributing to the revision of the calendar system.

医学Medicineも進歩し、後漢(ごかん)時代Later Han dynastyには張仲景(ちょう・ちゅうけい)Zhang Zhongjing 傷寒論(しょうかん・ろん)Shanghan Lun を著し、華陀(か・だ)Hua Tuo外科手術surgical operations麻酔薬anestheticsを用いたと伝えられる。

Medicine also advanced, and it is said that Zhang Zhongjing wrote "Suffering Cold" in the Later Han dynasty, and that Hua Tuo used anesthetics for surgical operations.



























































































































































スクール・オブ・ロック School of Rock (ロックの学校) 第 10 章 アンコール Chapter 10   Encore   スクール・オブ・ロック School of Rock (ロックの 学校 ( がっこう ) ) 2003 年(平成 1...