世界史 26 World history 26
中国周辺の情勢 Situation
around China
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
グラマンF4Fワイルドキャット Grumman F4F
Wildcat
グラマンF4Fワイルドキャット Grumman F4F
Wildcat
グラマンF4Fワイルドキャット Grumman F4F
Wildcat
グラマンF4Fワイルドキャット Grumman F4F
Wildcat
グラマンF4Fワイルドキャット Grumman F4F
Wildcat
グラマンF4Fワイルドキャット Grumman F4F
Wildcat
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
第2章 Chapter
2
古代文明の成立
Establishment of ancient civilization
第6節 Section Six
中国古典文明と古代帝国
Chinese Classical Civilization and
Ancient Empire
5 中国周辺の情勢 Situation around China
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
アジア内陸inland Asiaの乾燥地帯arid regionsには、新石器時代Neolithic
periodにいわゆる遊牧民nomadic
peoplesが西方the westから入ってきた。
So-called nomadic peoples came from the west
during the Neolithic period into the arid regions of inland Asia.
彼らは天幕tentsに住み、水・草を追ってchasing water and grass遊牧nomadic pasturesし、細石器fine stone toolsを愛用し、きわめて平和的な生活peaceful lifeを送っていた。
They lived in tents, nomadic pastures
chasing water and grass, using fine stone tools, and leading a very peaceful
life.
東アジアEast Asiaの地では、モンゴル高原Mongolian
plateauを遊牧grazedしていた原始遊牧民primitive
nomadsが、前4世紀ごろaround the 4th century B.C.E.西方westernのスキタイ青銅器文化Scythian Bronze Age cultureを学んで、鋭利な武器sharp weaponsをもつ好戦的belligerentな騎馬遊牧民horse-riding nomadsとなり、強盛となった。
In East Asia, the primitive nomads who
grazed the Mongolian plateau learned about the western Scythian Bronze Age
culture around the 4th century B.C.E.
They became belligerent horse-riding nomads
with sharp weapons and flourished.
これが匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuで、匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuの人種raceはモンゴル系Mongolian・トルコ系Turkish・イラン系Iranianなどといわれて定説established theoryはない。
This is the Xiongnu, and the race of the
Xiongnu is said to be Mongolian, Turkish, Iranian, etc., but there is no
established theory.
彼らは農耕地帯agricultural areasの豊富な物資abundant suppliesを求めて、しばしば中国北辺northern Chinaに侵入invadedし漢民族the Han Chineseを脅かした。
They often invaded northern China and
threatened the Han Chinese in search of the abundant supplies of the
agricultural areas.
スキタイ人 The Scythians
スキタイ人 The Scythians
補足supplementary explanation
スキタイ金属器文化 Scythian metalware culture
スキタイ人The Scythiansは前7世紀 the 7th century BCからカスピ海岸Caspian coastに勃興し、前6世紀the 6th century BCに黒海Black Sea北岸northern coastに王国kingdomを建てて栄えたペルシア系Persianの騎馬遊牧民nomads on horsebackである。
The Scythians are Persian nomads on
horseback who arose on the Caspian coast in the 7th century BC and built a
kingdom on the northern coast of the Black Sea in the 6th century BC.
鞍saddles・あぶみstirrupsなどの馬具Horse
harnessesや青銅器bronzeの甲冑armor・楯shields・短剣daggersなどの武具arms・武器の類weapons、および金製の装飾品gold
ornamentsが非常に発達していた。
Horse harnesses such as saddles and
stirrups, arms and weapons such as bronze armor, shields and daggers, as well
as gold ornaments, were highly developed.
ことに独自の動物意匠は有名unique animal designs。
It is especially famous for its unique
animal designs.
遺品を豊富に収蔵しているのはレニングラードLeningradのエルミタージュ博物館Hermitage Museumである。
The Hermitage Museum in Leningrad has a rich
collection of relics.
万里の長城(ばんり・の・ちょうじょう) Great
Wall of China
戦国時代Warring
States periodには、匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuはたびたび中国北辺northern Chinaに侵入invadedしたが、前3世紀後半the latter
half of the 3rd century B.C.には秦(しん)(チン)の始皇帝(し・こうてい)(シ・ファンディ)Qin Shi Huangdi(the first emperor of the Qin dynasty)によって駆逐expelledされ、侵入防止prevent
invasionのために万里の長城(ばんり・の・ちょうじょう)Great Wall of Chinaが修築された。
During the Warring States period, the
Xiongnu often invaded northern China, but in the latter half of the 3rd century
B.C.
They were expelled by the First Emperor of
Qin, and the Great Wall of China was repaired to prevent invasion.
東胡(とうこ) Donghu・月氏(げっし) Yuezhi
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
しかし、匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuは前3世紀末ごろaround the
end of the 3rd century B.C.冒頓単于(ぼくとつ・ぜんう)Modu Chanyu(在位前209年~前174年)が現れると、部族国家tribal stateを建てて強大となり、東胡(とうこ)Donghu・月氏(げっし)Yuezhiなど諸民族tribesを討ってdefeated東西貿易路the east-west trade routeを独占monopolizeし、東は中国東北部northeastern Chinaから西in the westは中央アジアCentral Asia、南in the southはオルドスOrdosから北in the northは外モンゴルOuter Mongoliaにおよぶ大遊牧国家large nomadic stateを建設し、しばしば中国北辺northern Chinaに侵入invadedした。
However, around the end of the 3rd century
B.C., the Xiongnu established a tribal state and became powerful after the
appearance of the Dandan Yu, and defeated the Eastern Hu and Yuezhi tribes to
monopolize the east-west trade route, from northeastern China in the east to
Central Asia in the west. , established a large nomadic state stretching from
Ordos in the south to Outer Mongolia in the north, and often invaded northern
China.
前200年200 B.C.、前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynastyの高祖(こうそ)(ギャオズ)Gaozu(劉邦(りゅうほう)(ルー・ベン)Liu Bang)と戦って勝ち、以後毎年漢室(かんしつ)Han familyより多額の貢物a large amount of tributeを受け取った。
In 200 B.C., he fought against Gaozu (Liu
Bang) of Han and won.
Since then, he received a large amount of
tribute from the Han family every year.
冒頓単于(ぼくとつ・ぜんう) Modu Chanyu (在位前209年~前174年)
冒頓単于(ぼくとつ・ぜんう) Modu Chanyu (在位前209年~前174年)
補足supplementary
explanation
単于(ぜんう) Chanyu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuの最高君主supreme monarchの称号title。
The title of the supreme monarch of the
Xiongnu.
漢書Chinese textsには単于(ぜんう)Chanyuとは広大vastの意とあるが、明らかでない。
According to Chinese texts, the word 'Tanyu'
means vast, but it is not clear.
平城(へいじょう) Pingcheng
(今nowの大同(だいどう) Datong)
冒頓単于(ぼくとつ・ぜんう)Modu Chanyuは前漢(ぜんかん)時代Former Han dynastyの匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuの王kingで、内外モンゴルInner and Outer Mongoliaを平定し、高祖(こうそ)(ギャオズ)Gaozu(劉邦(りゅうほう)(ルー・ベン)Liu Bang)を平城(へいじょう)Pingcheng(今nowの大同(だいどう)(ダートン)Datong)に包囲laid siegeして、屈辱的な和親humiliating treatyを結ばせた。
Futun Tanyu was a Xiongnu king in the Former
Han dynasty who pacified Inner and Outer Mongolia, laid siege to Gaozu (Liu
Bang) in Pingcheng (now Datong), and made a humiliating treaty.
ジュンガリア Dzungaria タリム盆地 Tarim
Basin
ジュンガリア Dzungaria タリム盆地 Tarim
Basin
ジュンガリア Dzungaria タリム盆地 Tarim
Basin
更に西westはジュンガリアDzungariaからタリム盆地Tarim Basinに勢力を延ばして大帝国great empireを建設し、匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuの最盛期peakを現出した。
Further west, extending from Dzungaria to
the Tarim Basin, they built a great empire, and the Xiongnu reached its peak.
前漢(ぜんかん) Former Han Dynasty (西漢(せいかん) Western Han Dynasty)
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
匈奴の東西分裂 East-West division of the Xiongnu
その後、匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuは漢(かん)(ハン)の武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wu of Hanの大討伐を受け、ついにオルドスOrdos・甘粛(かんしゅく)(カンスー)Gansuなどを手離し、ゴビ砂漠Gobi Desertの北に退き内陸貿易inland tradeの利を失ってしだいに衰えた。
After that, the Xiongnu were severely
subjugated by Emperor Wu of Han, finally gave up Ordos and Gansu, retreated to
the north of the Gobi Desert, and lost the advantage of inland trade and
gradually declined.
前1世紀中ごろthe middle of the 1st century B.C.匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuに内紛internal strifeが起こり東西に分裂divided into East and Westした。
In the middle of the 1st century B.C., the
Xiongnu were divided into East and West due to internal strife.
東匈奴(ひがし・きょうど)Eastern Xiongnuは漢(かん)(ハン)Han Dynastyに服属し、西匈奴(にし・きょうど)Western Xiongnuはシベリア西部western Siberiaのキルギス草原Kyrgyz steppeに追われ、やがて中国Chinaと同盟alliedした東匈奴(ひがし・きょうど)Eastern Xiongnuに滅ぼされた。
The Eastern Xiongnu surrendered to the Han
dynasty, while the Western Xiongnu were exiled to the Kyrgyz steppe in western
Siberia and eventually destroyed by the Eastern Xiongnu, who allied with China.
以後1世紀の間、漢(かん)(ハン)Han Dynastyの北辺northern frontierは平和peaceを保ち、その間、東匈奴(ひがし・きょうど)Eastern Xiongnuは中国文化Chinese cultureの影響を受けて鉄器時代Iron Ageに入った。
For the next century, the northern frontier
of Han remained at peace, while the Eastern Xiongnu entered the Iron Age under
the influence of Chinese culture.
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ) Xiongnu
東匈奴の南北分裂
The North-South split of the Eastern Xiongnu
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuは、1世紀中ごろthe middle of the 1st century(後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynastyの光武帝(こうぶ・てい)Emperor Guangwu時代era)、再び内紛internal strifeが起こり、南北に分裂divided into north and southした。
In the middle of the 1st century (during the
era of Emperor Guangwu of the Later Han), the Xiongnu were divided into north
and south due to internal strife again.
南匈奴(みなみ・きょうど)Southern Xiongnuは後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynastyに服属subjugatedし、その一部は長城(ちょうじょう)Great Wall of China以南に土着して農耕生活farmingに入り完全に中国化completely
Sinicizedする者も現れた。
The Southern Xiongnu were subjugated to the
Later Han dynasty, and some of them settled south of the Great Wall, began
farming, and became completely Sinicized.
後漢(ごかん) Later Han Dynastyの和帝(わ・てい) Emperor He
一方、北匈奴(きた・きょうど)Northern Xiongnuはしきりに南匈奴(みなみ・きょうど)Southern Xiongnuを侵し、中国北辺the northern part of Chinaを脅かしたが、1世紀末the end of
the 1st centuryに後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynastyの和帝(わ・てい)Emperor Heの討伐subjugatedを受けて西方に逃れfled westward、その一部はまず烏孫(うそん)Wusunに、更にキルギス草原Kyrgyz steppeを越えて西進advanced westwardし、4世紀 the 4th centuryにヴォルガ・フンthe Volga Hunとして南ロシアsouthern Russiaに現れ、同世紀末the late 4th centuryには黒海北岸the northern coast of the Black Seaに現れた。
On the other hand, the Northern Xiongnu
continued to invade the Southern Xiongnu and threatened the northern part of
China, but at the end of the 1st century they were subjugated by the Emperor of
the Later Han dynasty and fled westward, some of them first to Wusun, and then
crossed the Kyrgyz steppe and advanced westward. Then, in the 4th century, they
appeared in southern Russia as the Volga Hun, and in the late 4th century they
appeared on the northern coast of the Black Sea.
フン人 the Huns
これがヨーロッパEuropeにゲルマン民族Germanic peoplesの大移動the great migrationを引き起こしたフン人the Hunsであろうといわれている。
It is said that this was the Huns who caused
the great migration of Germanic peoples to Europe.
中央アジアの民族移動 Migration in Central Asia
中央アジアの民族移動 Migration in Central Asia
中央アジアの民族移動
Migration in Central Asia
匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuの勃興riseとその移動migrationは、中央アジアCentral Asiaの諸民族the peoplesに大きな影響great impactを与えた。
The rise and migration of the Xiongnu had a
great impact on the peoples of Central Asia.
甘粛(かんしゅく)(カンスー)Gansu方面にいたトルコ系Turkic
ancestryの月氏(げっし)Yuezhi(イラン系Iranian ancestryともいわれる)は、甘粛(かんしゅく)(カンスー)以西west of Gansuに住み、牧畜livestock farmingを主とし農業agricultureを副としながら、東西の中継貿易intermediary trade between the east and westの利を得ていた。
The Yuezhi (also known as the Iranian) of
Turkic ancestry in the Kansu area lived west of Kansu, mainly engaged in
livestock farming and subsidized agriculture, and benefited from intermediary
trade between the east and west.
前2世紀 the 2nd century BCに、貿易の独占monopolize tradeと中央アジアCentral Asiaの制圧controlを目的とした匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuの圧迫を受けて、月氏(げっし)Yuezhiは天山(テンシャン)Tian Shan方面areaに移動し、当時キルギス草原Kyrgyz steppeからイリ盆地Ili Basinにかけて分布していたスキタイ系Scythian
originの遊牧民族サカ族the nomadic Saka peopleを西方に追ってイリ盆地Ili Basinを占領occupiedした。
In the 2nd century BC, under pressure from
the Xiongnu who wanted to monopolize trade and control Central Asia, the Yue
clan moved to the Tianshan area. followed the tribe westward and occupied the
Ili Basin. At that time, they pursued the nomadic Saka people of Scythian
origin who were distributed from the Kyrgyz steppe to the Iri Basin to the west
and occupied the Iri Basin.
オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states (西域36国 36 countries in the western region)
オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states (西域36国 36 countries in the western region)
オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states (西域36国 36 countries in the western region)
しかし、間もなくジュンガリア地方Dzungaria region(天山北路(てんざん・ほくろ)Tianshan North Road)にあって匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuの支配下にあったトルコ系the Turkicの烏孫(うそん)Wusunがこの地に進出したため、再び移動してアム川北岸the north bank of the Am Riverのバクトリア地方Bactria regionに入り建国した。
However, soon after, the Turkic Wusun, who
had been under the control of the Xiongnu in the Dzungaria region (Tianshan
North Road), advanced to this region, so they moved again and entered the
Bactria region on the north bank of the Am River to establish a state.
これを大月氏(だいげっし)Greater Yuezhiという。
This is called Greater Yuezhi.
大月氏(だいげっし) Greater Yuezhi 大夏(たいか)Daxia
この結果、甘粛(かんしゅく)(カンスー)Gansuは匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnu、イリ盆地Ili Basinは烏孫(うそん)Wusun、アム川the Am Riverを境とする北方to the northには大月氏(だいげっし)Greater Yuezhi、南方to the southにはサカ族Saka peopleの同類same speciesのトハラ人the Tocharians(大夏(たいか)Daxia)が並び立った。
As a result, the Xiongnu clan in Gansu, the
Wusun clan in the Ili Basin, the Otsuki clan to the north of the Am River, and
the Tohara clan of the same species as Saka Saka to the south.
クシャーナ朝(クシャン朝) Kushan dynasty
クシャーナ朝 Kushan
dynasty (貴霜朝(きそうちょう) Guishuang dynasty)(30年~375年)
大月氏(だいげっし)Greater Yuezhiはその後前1世紀ごろaround the 1st century BC、アム川南岸the south bank of the Am Riverの大夏(たいか)Daxia(トハラ人the Tocharians)を服属subjugatedさせ、ギリシア文化Greek cultureを受容して繁栄した。
After that, around the 1st century BC, the
Otsuki clan subjugated Tohara on the south bank of the Am River and prospered
by adopting Greek culture.
前述したクシャーナ朝(クシャン朝)Kushan dynastyは、この一諸侯one lordから興った。
The Kushana Dynasty, mentioned above, arose
from this one lord.
新疆(しんきょう)(シンチャン) Xinjiang
新疆ウイグル自治区 Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region
新疆(しんきょう)(シンチャン) Xinjiang
オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states (西域36国 36 countries in the western region)
オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states (西域36国 36 countries in the western region)
西域のオアシス都市国家
Western Region Oasis City-States
西域(せいいき)Xiyu, Western Regionsはもともと西方諸国the countries of the Westの総称で、その中心は今の新疆(しんきょう)(シンチャン)Xinjiang、いわゆる天山南路(てんざん・なんろ)Tianshan South Roadに当たり、東西交通路the east-west transportation routeの幹線をなしている。
The Western Region was originally a general
term for the countries of the West, and its center was present-day Xinjiang,
the so-called Tianshan South Road, which forms the trunk of the east-west
transportation route.
パミール高原Pamir Plateauの西側やタリム盆地Tarim Basinの周辺のオアシスoasesには、前2世紀 the 2nd century BCからアーリア人the Aryansが定住して、灌漑農業irrigated agricultureを営むかたわら、東西の中継貿易trade between east and westを行い、小城郭都市国家small walled city-statesを築いて繁栄していた。
Since the 2nd century BC, the Aryans have
settled in the oases around the western Pamir Plateau and the Tarim Basin, and
while engaging in irrigated agriculture, trade between east and west was
carried out, and prospered by building small walled city-states.
張騫(ちょう・けん) Zhang Qian (?~前114年)
統一国家unified
nationを完成した前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynastyの武帝(ぶ・てい) Emperor Wuは、大月氏(だいげっし)Greater Yuezhiと同盟して匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuを挟撃するため張騫(ちょう・けん)Zhang Qianを西域(せいいき)Xiyu, Western Regionsに派遣した。
Emperor Wu of Han, who had completed a
unified nation, dispatched Zhang Qian to the Western Regions to ally with the
Oyue clan and attack the Xiongnu from both sides.
前後13年かかった張騫(ちょう・けん)Zhang Qianの苦難にみちた大旅行は、その本来の使命original missionを達することはできなかったが、これによって西域(せいいき)Xiyu, Western Regionsの事情situationが初めて中国Chinaに知られるようになった。
Although Zhang Qian's journey, which took 13
years before and after, was full of hardships, but failed to achieve its
original mission, it was the first time that the situation in the Western
Regions became known to China.
大宛(だいえん) Dayuan (フェルガナ Fergana)
大宛(だいえん) Dayuan (フェルガナ Fergana)
衛青(えい・せい) Wei
Qing
霍去病(かく・きょへい) Huo
Qubing
李広利(り・こうり) Li
Guangli
武帝(ぶ・てい) Emperor Wuは張騫(ちょう・けん)Zhang Qianの遠征expeditionで西域(せいいき)Xiyu, Western Regionsの事情situationが明らかになると、衛青(えい・せい)Wei
Qing・霍去病(かく・きょへい)Huo
Qubingの匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnu討伐extermination、李広利(り・こうり)Li
Guangliの大宛(だいえん)Dayuan(フェルガナFergana)遠征expeditionを初め、しばしば大軍large armyを派遣して西域36国the 36 countries in the
Western Regionsを服属subjugateさせた。
After Zhang Qian's expedition revealed the
situation in the Western Regions, Emperor Wu often dispatched a large army to
subjugate the 36 countries in the Western Regions, starting with Wei Qing and
Huo Guo's extermination of the Xiongnu and Li Guangli's expedition to Fergana.
宣帝(せん・てい) Emperor
Xuan
班超(はん・ちょう) Ban Chao
甘英(かん・えい) Gan Ying
西域都護府(せいいき・とごふ) Protectorate
of the Western Regions
西域都護(せいいき・とご) Xīyù
Dūhù, Protectorate of the Western Regions
前60年60 B.C.E.宣帝(せん・てい)Emperor Xuanのとき西域都護府(せいいき・とごふ)Protectorate of the Western Regionsを烏塁城(うるいじょう)(今のシャディルShadir)において西域経営management of
the Western Regionsに乗り出した。
In 60 B.C.E., Emperor Xuan embarked on
management of the Western Regions in Wuli City (present-day Shadir).
更に後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynasty時代には西域都護(せいいき・とご)Protectorate of the Western Regions班超(はん・ちょう)Ban Chaoらの活躍により、カスピ海Caspian Sea以東の56国を支配した。
Furthermore, in the Later Han Dynasty, due
to the activities of Togo Bancho and others in the western region, he ruled 56
countries east of the Caspian Sea.
また、班超(はん・ちょう)Ban Chaoの部下subordinate甘英(かん・えい)Gan Yingが大秦国(たいしんこく)Daqin(ローマRomeあるいはその東方領eastern
territories)に派遣されて、条支(じょうし)Jozhi(シリアSyria)に至ったのもこのころのことである。
It was also around this time that Kan Ying,
a subordinate of Ban Chao, was dispatched to Daqin (Rome or its eastern
territories) and arrived in Jozhi (Syria).
オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states (西域36国 36 countries in the western region)
オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states (西域36国 36 countries in the western region)
補足supplementary
explanation
西域36国 the 36
countries in the Western Regions
西域(せいいき)Xiyu, Western Regionsとは、中国人the Chineseが古くから中国西方諸国the western countries of Chinaの総称general termとして用いた名称で、広義in a broad senseではペルシアPersia・小アジアAsia Minor・シリアSyria・エジプトEgypt方面からネパールNepal・インドIndiaまで、ときには青海(せいかい)Qinghai・チベットTibet方面をも含める。
The Western Region is a name that the
Chinese have used as a general term for the western countries of China since
ancient times, and in a broad sense it includes Persia, Asia Minor, Syria,
Egypt, Nepal, India, and sometimes Qinghai and Tibet.
東トルキスタンEast
Turkistan
トルキスタンに含まれる国家・地域を囲った地図
Map enclosing countries and regions included
in Turkestan
トルキスタンの面積は、インド亜大陸よりも広い
The area of Turkestan is larger than the
Indian subcontinent.
狭義In a narrow senseでは、タリム盆地Tarim Basinすなわち東トルキスタンEast
Turkistanのオアシス国家群a group of
oasis statesをいう。
In a narrow sense, it refers to the Tarim
Basin, a group of oasis states in East Turkistan.
漢(かん)(ハン)代during the Han dynastyに東トルキスタンEast Turkistanのオアシス諸国the oasis nationsが匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuの支配下にあったとき、それらの国は西域36国the 36 nations of the
Western Regionsと総称され、その後も数世紀間for several centuries、実数にかかわりなく36国the 36 nationsと呼ばれた。
When the oasis nations of East Turkistan
were under Xiongnu rule during the Han dynasty, they were collectively called
the 36 nations of the Western Regions, and for several centuries after that
they were called the 36 nations, regardless of their actual numbers.
山海関(さんかいかん) Shanhaiguan
これらの国々のことは 『漢書(かんじょ)Book of Han』 の西域伝the Western Regionsに見えている。
These countries can be seen in the Western
Regions of the Book of Han.
『漢書(かんじょ)Book of Han』 の地理志the Geographyでは、西域諸国the countries of the Western Regionsまでの里数は、長安(ちょうあん)(チャンアン)Chang'anからの距離、山海関(さんかいかん)Shanhaiguanからの距離で示されている。
In the Geography of the "Book of
Han," the number of ri to the countries of the Western Regions is
indicated by the distance from Chang'an and the distance from Shanhaiguan.
絹の道(きぬ・の・みち) Silk
Road
絹の道(きぬ・の・みち) Silk
Road
こうして西域交通traffic in the western regionは大いに開け、東西文化の交流cultural exchanges between the East and the Westは目ざましく発展した。
Thus, traffic in the western region opened
up greatly, and cultural exchanges between the East and the West developed
remarkably.
中国Chinaからは特産special
productsの絹silk・漆器lacquerwareなどが西方westwardに運ばれ、特に絹silkはヨーロッパEuropeで珍重され、絹の道(きぬのみち)Silk
Roadの名称の起源となった。
From China, silk and lacquerware, which are
special products, were transported westward, and silk in particular was prized
in Europe, giving rise to the name Silk Road.
一方、西方westからはフェルガナ地方Fergana regionの名馬fine horses(天馬flying horse)や中央アジアCentral Asiaのぶどうgrapes・ローマRomeのさんごcorals・宝石jewels・ガラス器glasswareなどが中国Chinaに運ばれ、ガラス製作glass productionの技術technologyも伝えられた。
On the other hand, from the west, fine
horses (Tenma) from the Fergana region, grapes from Central Asia, corals from
Rome, jewels, and glassware were brought to China, along with the technology of
glass production.
また、インドの仏教Indian Buddhismやガンダーラ美術Gandharan artもこの道をへて中国Chinaに伝来した(後1世紀ごろaround the
1st century AD)。
Indian Buddhism and Gandharan art were also
introduced to China through this route (around the 1st century AD).
南越国(なんえつこく) Nanyue
Province
南越国(なんえつこく) Nanyue
Province
趙佗(ちょう・だ) Zhao
Tuo
南越国(なんえつこく)Nanyue Province
秦始皇帝(しん・し・こうてい)(チン・シ・ファンディ)Qin Shi
Huangdi(the first
emperor of the Qin dynasty)は、広東(カントン)Guangdongからヴェトナム北部地方the northern part of Vietnamに至るまでを征服conqueredして桂林(けいりん)Kweilin・象郡(しょうぐん)Xiang
County・南海(なんかい)Nanhaiの3郡three countiesを置いたが、前3世紀末the end of
the 3rd century BC、秦末(しんまつ)the end of the Qin dynastyの反乱rebellionに乗じて、中国人Chineseの趙佗(ちょう・だ)Zhao Tuoが珠江(しゅこう)Pearl River河口mouthの番禺(ばんぐう)Panyu(今の広東(カントン)Guangdong)を都capitalとして南越国(なんえつこく)Nanyue
Provinceを建て、広東(カントン)Guangdong・広西(こうせい)Guangxiからヴェトナム北部地方the
northern part of Vietnamを領有した。
The First Emperor of Qin conquered Guilin,
Elephant County, and Nanhai Province from Guangdong to the northern part of
Vietnam and established three counties, Guilin, Elephant County, and Nanhai. He
established Nanyue Province with Panyu (present-day Guangdong) as the capital,
and possessed the northern part of Vietnam from Guangdong and Guangxi.
At the end of the 3rd century BC, taking
advantage of the rebellion at the end of the Qin dynasty, the Chinese Zhao Tuo
made Panyu (now Guangdong) at the mouth of the Pearl River his capital.
初め前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynastyは南越王(なんえつおう)King
of Nanyueに封じたが、のち不和となり、前111年111 BC、前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynastyの武帝(ぶ・てい) Emperor Wuは16万の大軍large armyを送って南越国(なんえつこく)Nanyue
Provinceを滅ぼし南海郡(なんかいぐん)Nanhai
Countyなどの9郡nine countiesを置いた。
At first, Han ruled Nanyue as King of
Nanyue, but later they became discord, and in 111 BC, Emperor Wu of Han sent a
large army of 160,000 to destroy Nanyue and set up nine counties, including
Nanhai County.
漢民族(かんみんぞく)Han Chineseの勢力が初めてこの地方にまで及んだので、これよりしだいに南方海上の交通southern maritime trafficが開ける糸口になったのである。
As the influence of the Han race reached
this region for the first time, it became a clue to open up southern maritime
traffic.
南海郡などの9郡 the nine
counties including Nanhai county
南越国(なんえつこく) Nanyue
Province
補足supplementary
explanation
南海郡などの9郡
the nine counties including Nanhai county
9郡the nine countiesの名は、南海(なんかい)Nanhai・蒼梧(そうご)Cangwu・欝林(うつりん)Yulin・合浦(ごうほ)Hepu・儋耳(たんじ)Dangmi・珠崖(しゅがい)Zhuyai・交趾(こうし)Goji・九真(きゅうしん)Jiuzhen・日南(にちなん)Nichinanをいう。
The names of the nine counties are Nanhai,
Cangwu, Ulin, Hepu, Dangmi, Zhuyai, Goji, Jiuzhen, and Nichinan.
このうち交趾(こうし)Goji・九真(きゅうしん)Jiuzhen・日南(にちなん)Nichinanの3郡は現在のヴェトナム領内Vietnam territoryに置かれたものである。
Three of these counties, Kojin, Kyushin, and
Nichinan, were placed in present-day Vietnam territory.
古朝鮮(こちょうせん) Gojoseon
戦国の七雄 the Seven Kings of the Warring States
斉(せい)(チー)Qi・楚(そ)(チュー)Chu・秦(しん)(チン)Qin・燕(えん)(イェン)Yan・韓(かん)(ハン)Han・魏(ぎ)(ウェイ)Wei・趙(ちょう)(ジャオゥ)Zhao
古朝鮮(こちょうせん) Gojoseon
衛氏朝鮮(えいしちょうせん) Wiman
Joseon
漢四郡(かん・の・しぐん) Four
Commanderies of Han 三韓(さんかん)Samhan(Three Hans)
漢四郡(かん・の・しぐん) Four
Commanderies of Han
漢四郡(かん・の・しぐん) Four
Commanderies of Han 三韓(さんかん)Samhan(Three Hans)
朝鮮と日本 Korea and Japan
朝鮮 Korea
朝鮮北部the northern
part of Koreaでは、中国Chinaの戦国時代Warring States periodに中国Chinaから鉄器文明ironware civilizationが伝わり、前3世紀 the 3rd century B.C.に箕子朝鮮(きし・ちょうせん)Gija Joseonが興り、前2世紀ごろaround the
2nd century B.C.には中国Chinaから燕王(えん・おう)King of Yanの一族familyが亡命して衛氏朝鮮(えいし・ちょうせん)Wiman Joseonを建てたが、前漢(ぜんかん)Former Hanの武帝(ぶてい)Emperor Wuはこれを討滅eradicatedして、楽浪(らくろう)Lelang・臨屯(りんとん)Lintun・玄莵(げんと)Xuantu・真番(しんばん)Zhenfanの漢四郡(かん・の・しぐん)Four Commanderies of Hanを置いた。
In the northern part of Korea, ironware
civilization was introduced from China during the Warring States period of China.
In the 3rd century B.C., Minzi Joseon was established, and around the 2nd
century B.C., a family of the King of Yan fled from China and established Weizi
Joseon. Emperor Wu of the Former Han eradicated it and established four Han
counties: Lelang, Lintun, Xuanzhu, and Shinban.
特に平壌(ピョンヤン)Pyongyang付近に置かれた楽浪郡(らくろう・ぐん)Lelang Commanderyは、4世紀初めthe early 4th centuryまで存続し、朝鮮北部northern Koreaにおける中国文化Chinese cultureの中心地the centerとなった。
In particular, Nakrang County, located near
Pyongyang, survived until the early 4th century and became the center of
Chinese culture in northern Korea.
また、中国東北地方northeastern Chinaから朝鮮北部northern Koreaにかけていた貊族(はくぞく)Maek peopleは、前1世紀後半the second
half of the 1st century B.C.E.に高句麗(こうくり)(コグリョ)Goguryeoという部族国家tribal stateを形成した。
In the second half of the 1st century
B.C.E., the Mii tribe, which spread from northeastern China to northern Korea,
formed a tribal state called Goguryeo.
更に朝鮮南部the southern part of Koreaには、3世紀ごろ韓人(かんじん)the Koreansによって馬韓(ばかん)Mahan・弁韓(べんかん)Byeonhan・辰韓(しんかん)Jinhanのいわゆる三韓(さんかん)Samhan(Three Hans)が形成された。
Furthermore, in the southern part of Korea,
the so-called Three Hans of Mahan, Byeonhan, and Jinhan were formed by Koreans
around the 3rd century.
古朝鮮(こちょうせん) Gojoseon
戦国の七雄 the Seven Kings of the Warring States
斉(せい)(チー)Qi・楚(そ)(チュー)Chu・秦(しん)(チン)Qin・燕(えん)(イェン)Yan・韓(かん)(ハン)Han・魏(ぎ)(ウェイ)Wei・趙(ちょう)(ジャオゥ)Zhao
補足supplementary
explanation
箕子朝鮮(きし・ちょうせん)Gija Joseon
古代朝鮮Ancient Koreaの伝説上の王国Legendary
kingdom。
A mythical kingdom in ancient Korea.
周(しゅう)(ジョウ)Zhouの武王(ぶ・おう)King Wuが殷(いん)(イェン)the
Yin Dynastyを滅ぼしたとき、箕子(きし)Jiziを朝鮮Koreaに封じ、これより箕子朝鮮(きし・ちょうせん)Gija Joseonが始まったという。
It is said that when King Mu of Zhou
destroyed the Yin Dynasty, he confined Mino to Joseon, and thus Mino Joseon
began.
衛氏朝鮮(えいし・ちょうせん)Wiman Joseonが建国されたとき(前190年ごろaround 190 B.C.)、箕子(きし)Jiziの後裔descendantと称する朝鮮王King of Joseon箕準(き・じゅん)Ji Junを今日の平壌(ピョンヤン)Pyongyangの地で滅ぼした。
When the Oishi Joseon was established
(around 190 B.C.), he destroyed King Gijun of Joseon, who claimed to be a
descendant of Gija, in the land of today's Pyongyang.
漢委奴国王印(かんの・わの・なの・こくおう・いん)King of Na
gold seal
Seal
of the King of the Na state of the Wa of the Han Dynasty
日本 Japan
日本Japanも朝鮮Koreaを通じて中国文化Chinese
cultureの影響を受けた。
Japan was also influenced by Chinese culture
through Korea.
稲作の開始the start of
rice cultivation・青銅器や鉄器の使用the use of bronze and ironwareなどにより、社会の発展social developmentが見られ、弥生文化(やよい・ぶんか)Yayoi cultureが成立した。
With the start of rice cultivation and the
use of bronze and ironware, social development was seen, and the Yayoi culture
was established.
漢(かん)代during the Han dynastyには日本Japanと楽浪郡(らくろう・ぐん)Lelang Commanderyとの間にかなりの往来があったらしく、『漢書(かんじょ)Book of Han』 の地理志(ちりし)Treatise on Geographyや 『後漢書(ごかんじょ)Book
of the Later Han』 の東夷列伝(とうい・れつでん)Treatise on the Dongyiに日本Japanに関する記事が見える。
There seems to have been considerable
traffic between Japan and Lelang County during the Han dynasty, and articles
about Japan can be found in the Geography of the "Book of the Han
Dynasty" and the Toiden of the "Book of the Later Han Dynasty."
また、江戸時代during the Edo periodに九州Kyushuで発見された漢委奴国王(かんの・わの・なの・こくおう)the King of the Na state of the Wa of the Han Dynastyの金印golden sealは、後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynastyの光武帝(こうぶ・てい)Emperor Guangwuが日本からの使者messenger from Japanに託したものと考えられており、当時の交渉the negotiations at that timeを物語る貴重な資料である。
In addition, the golden seal of the King of
the Han Dynasty, which was discovered in Kyushu during the Edo period, is
believed to have been entrusted to a messenger from Japan by Emperor Guangwu of
the Later Han Dynasty, and is a valuable document that tells the story of the
negotiations at that time.
邪馬台国(やまたいこく) Yamatai-koku
補足supplementary
explanation
『漢書』地理志の日本記事
Article related to Japan in Treatise on
Geography of “Book of Han”
『漢書(かんじょ)Book of Han』(前漢書(ぜんかんしょ)Book of Former Hanともいう)地理志(ちりし)Treatise on Geographyの燕地Yanchiの条articleに「楽浪海中in the Sea of Lelangに倭人Japanese peopleあり、分かれて百余国more than 100 countriesとなる。歳時をもって来りてcome with his age献見make a dedicationすという」とある。
"Kansho" (also known as
"Zenkansho") has an article about Yanchi in Geography, ``There are
Japanese people in the Sea of Lelang, divided into more than 100 countries.
It is said that he will come with his age
and make a dedication.
これが中国史書Chinese history booksに見える日本関係記事article related to Japanの最初で、この後にくるのが有名な 『三国志(さんごくし)Records
of the Three Kingdoms』 のなかの魏志(ぎし)Wèi zhì, Biography of Wei倭人伝(わじんでん)Wō rén chuán, Wajindenの邪馬台国(やまたいこく)Xié mǎ
tái guó, Yamatai-kokuに関する記事である。
This is the first article related to Japan
that can be seen in Chinese history books, and after this is the article about
Yamataikoku in the famous Gishi Wajinden in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
絹の道(きぬ・の・みち) Silk
Road
絹の道(きぬ・の・みち) Silk
Road
整理arrangement
東西交渉史と三大交通路
The History of East-West Negotiations and
the Three Major Traffic Routes
絹の道(きぬ・の・みち)Silk Road
洛陽(らくよう)(ルオヤン)Luoyang・長安(ちょうあん)(チャンアン)Chang'anから甘粛(かんしゅく)(カンスー)Gansuをへて、敦煌(とんこう)(ドゥンファン)Dunhuangから西域南道(せいいき・なんどう)Xiyunándào, Western Region South Roadまたは西域北道(せいいき・ほくどう)Xiyuběidào, Western Region North Road(天山南路(てんざん・なんろ)TianshanNánlù, Tianshan South Road)を通り、パミール高原Pamir Plateauを越えてイランIran・メソポタミアMesopotamiaをへて地中海沿岸Mediterranean coastに達し、東西文化圏East and West cultural spheresを最短距離shortest distanceで結ぶ。
From Luoyang/Chang'an through Gansu, from
Dunhuang through the Western Region South Road or Western Region North Road
(Tianshan South Road), crossing the Pamir Plateau, Iran and Mesopotamia,
reaching the Mediterranean coast, connecting the East and West cultural spheres
in the shortest distance.
フェルディナント・フォン・リヒトホーフェン Ferdinand von Richthofen
東eastからローマRomeに運ばれた主な商品main
commodityが絹(きぬ)silkであったところから近代modern timesになって与えられた名称name。
The name given in modern times because the
main commodity brought to Rome from the east was silk.
ドイツの地理学者German
geographerリヒトホーフェンRichthofen(1833年~1905年)の命名とされる。
It is said to have been named by the German
geographer Richthofen.
東西陸上交通land
transportation between the east and westの幹線trunk lineとして重要な役割important roleを果たし、東西貿易の利benefit of east-west tradeを目指して諸民族の抗争の場place of conflict between various ethnic groupsとなり、多くの国家many nationsが興亡した。
It played an important role as a trunk line
for land transportation between the east and west, and became a place of
conflict between various ethnic groups for the benefit of east-west trade, and
many nations rose and fell.
アレクサンドロス大王 Alexander the Great ペルシア遠征 Persian Expedition
Alexander's invasion of the Indian
subcontinent
西方部分western partはアケメネス朝ペルシアAchaemenid
Persiaの統一unificationによって早くから開け、特にアレクサンドロス大王Alexander
the Greatの東征eastern
campaignでインドIndiaへの途が開かれた。
The western part opened early with the
unification of Achaemenid Persia, especially with Alexander the Great's eastern
campaign, which opened the way to India.
オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states (西域36国 36 countries in the western region)
オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states (西域36国 36 countries in the western region)
オアシス都市国家 oasis city-states (西域36国 36 countries in the western region)
東半部分eastern halfは武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wuの西域経営management of the western region以来、急速に開けた。
The eastern half opened up rapidly after
Emperor Wu's management of the western region.
ことに天山山脈(てんざん・さんみゃく)Tian Shan Mountainsからの雪解け水melted snowによるタリム川the Tarim Riverに沿う天山南路(てんざん・なんろ)TianshanNánlù, Tianshan South Roadは、古来最も重要な交通路the most important transportation routeで、漢代(かんだい)during the
Han Dynastyに西域36国the 36 countries in the
Western Regionsといわれるオアシス国家群the oasis nationsの多くが栄えた地域で、漢王朝(かんおうちょう)the Han Dynastyが東西文化の交流cultural exchange between the East and the Westを図るためにはこれを服属subjugatedさせなければならなかったのである。
In particular, the Tianshan South Road,
which runs along the Tarim River with melted snow from the Tianshan Mountains,
has been the most important transportation route since ancient times. Many of
the oasis nations, said to be the 36 countries in the Western Region,
flourished during the Han Dynasty, and the Han Dynasty was the center of
cultural exchange between the East and the West. In order to achieve this, it
had to be subjugated.
クシャーナ朝 (クシャン朝) Kushan dynasty
クシャーナ朝 Kushan
dynasty (貴霜朝(きそうちょう) Guishuang dynasty)(30年~375年)
次いでクシャン朝the Kushan dynastyの発展によって中国ChinaとインドIndiaとが結ばれて、東アジアEast Asia・西アジアWest Asia・南アジアSouth Asiaの三文化圏the three cultural spheresが直結することとなった。
Subsequently, the development of the Kushan
dynasty connected China and India, and the three cultural spheres of East Asia,
West Asia, and South Asia became directly connected.
なお、天山山脈(てんざん・さんみゃく)Tian Shan Mountainsの北麓northern footに沿って走る天山北路(てんざん・ほくろ)TianshanBěilù, Tianshan North Roadもまた絹の道(きぬ・の・みち)Silk Roadの一つであるが、それはまた、次に記した草原の道grassland roadsの一つでもある。
The Tianshan North Road, which runs along
the northern foot of the Tianshan Mountains, is also one of the silk roads, but
it is also one of the grassland roads described below.
草原の道 Grassland Road
絹の道(きぬ・の・みち) Silk
Road
草原の道 Grassland Road
草原の道Grassland
Roadは、内陸の草原地帯the inland
grasslandsを結ぶもので、中国北辺northern Chinaの長城Great Wall地帯から、モンゴル高原Mongolian Plateau・アルタイ山麓the foothills of the Altai Mountains・キルギス高原Kyrgyz Highlandsをへて、南ロシアsouthern Russiaの草原地帯the grasslandsに至る。
The Grassland Road connects the inland
grasslands, from the Great Wall in northern China, through the Mongolian
Plateau, the foothills of the Altai Mountains, and the Kyrgyz Highlands, to the
grasslands of southern Russia.
この地帯で活躍したのは、前7世紀~前4世紀 the 7th to 4th century
B.C.のスキタイScythiaに始まるいわゆる騎馬民族equestrian
racesで、匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnu・月氏(げっし)Yuezhi・烏孫(うそん)Wusun・突厥(とっけつ)Göktürks・ウイグルUyghursなどで、モンゴルthe Mongolの西征expedition to the westもこの路を通って行われた。
The so-called equestrian races that started
in Scythia in the 7th to 4th century B.C. The Xiongnu, Yuezhi, Wusun,
Turkmenistan, Uyghur, etc., also used this road for the Mongol expedition to
the west.
海の道 Sea road
海の道 Sea road
海の道 Sea road
海の道the sea routeとはいうまでもなく、インドIndiaを媒介mediumとする南海貿易路South Sea
Trade Routeで、南中国South Chinaから東南アジアSoutheast AsiaをへてインドIndiaに達する東方航路eastern routeと、地中海Mediterranean Seaから紅海Red Seaをへて、インド洋Indian Oceanを越えてインドIndiaに至る西方航路western routeとが結ばれる。
Needless to say, the sea route is the South
Sea Trade Route, which uses India as a medium, the eastern route from South
China through Southeast Asia to reach India, and the western route from the
Mediterranean Sea through the Red Sea, across the Indian Ocean to India.
connected to the route.
漢(かん)Han・ローマRomeの拡大expansionによって発達し、特に唐(とう)Tang・イスラム帝国Islamic empiresの興隆rise以来、イラン人the Iranians・アラビア人the Arabsなどが往来して大いに繁栄し、陸路land routesに代わって東西交通の中心the center of east-west trafficとなった。
Developed with the expansion of Han and
Rome, especially since the rise of the Tang and Islamic empires, Iranians and
Arabs came and went and prospered greatly, replacing land routes as the center
of east-west traffic.
漢(かん)(ハン)の官制 Han government system
丞相(じょう・しょう) Chéngxiàng,
Chancellor (行政 administrative)
太尉(たい・い) Tàiwèi,
Grand Commandant (軍事 military)
御史大夫(ぎょし・たいふ) Yùshǐ
Dàfū, Grand Secretary (監察 Inspector)
第6節 Section Six
中国古典文明と古代帝国
Chinese Classical Civilization and
Ancient Empire
6 漢時代の社会と文化
Han dynasty society and culture
漢時代の社会 Han dynasty society
中央官制 Central Government
漢(かん)Hanでは初め秦(しん)の官制Qin
government systemにならって、丞相(じょうしょう)Chéngxiàng, Chancellor(行政administrative)・太尉(たい・い)Tàiwèi, Grand Commandant(軍事military)・御史大夫(ぎょし・たいふ)Yùshǐ Dàfū, Grand Secretary(監察Inspector)を置いたが、後には司徒(しと)Sītú, Minister of the Masses・司馬(しば)Sīmǎ, Minister of War・司空(しくう)Sīkōng, Minister of Worksと改称し(三公(さんこう)Sāngōng, Three Ducal Ministers)、その後三公(さんこう)Sāngōngの上に上公(じょうこう)Janggong(太師(たいし)Tàishī, Grand Preceptor・太傅(たいふ)Tàifù, Grand Tutor・太保(たいほ)Tàibǎo, Grand Protector)ができ、別に天子(てんし)Tiānzǐ, Heavenly Sonsの側近にあって実権をもつ尚書(しょうしょ)Shangshu・中書(ちゅうしょ)Zhongshuなどの府(ふ)Fǔができ、三公(さんこう)Sāngōngの実権を奪った。
In the beginning, the Han system followed
the Qin government system, with the ranks of Chief Minister (administrative),
Grand Lieutenant (military), and Chief of Staff (Inspector). In 1914, Janggong
(Taishi, Daifu, and Taiho) were established, and separate governments such as
Shosho and Chusho, who were close to Tenshi and had real power, were
established and took over the real power of the three nobles.
郡県制(ぐん・けん・せい) county-prefecture
system
郡国制(ぐん・こく・せい) jùnguózhì,
county and state system
地方官制 Local Government
初めは郡国制(ぐん・こく・せい)jùnguózhì, county and state systemを行った。
At first, the county system was implemented.
郡国制(ぐん・こく・せい)jùnguózhì, county and state
systemにおける諸王the kingsは、領内の軍事権military
rightsや課税権taxation
rightsをもっていたが、中央から派遣された官僚bureaucratsが政治politicsに当り完全な独立国completely
independentではなかった。
In the county government system, the kings
had military and taxation rights within their territories, but the government
was not completely independent as bureaucrats dispatched from the central
government took charge of politics.
呉楚七国の乱(ごそ・しちこく・の・らん) Rebellion of the Seven States of Wu Chu
呉楚七国の乱(ごそ・しちこく・の・らん) Rebellion of the Seven States of Wu Chu
第5代の文帝(ぶん・てい)Emperor Wenや第6代の景帝(けい・てい)Emperor Jingは有力諸王the influential kingsの封土(ほうど)fēngtǔ, fiefsを削減しようと図り、更に呉楚七国の乱(ごそ・しちこく・の・らん)Rebellion of the Seven States of Wu Chu(前154年154 B.C.)の後にはますます封建的要素feudal elementsを弱めて中央集権centralized powerの実をあげ、武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wuの時代には全国一様に郡県制(ぐん・けん・せい)jùnXiànzhì, county and prefecture systemとなった。
The 5th Emperor Wen and the 6th Emperor Jing
attempted to reduce the fiefdoms of the influential kings, and after the Wu Chu
Seven Kingdoms Rebellion (154 B.C.), the feudal elements were further weakened
and centralized power was achieved. In the era of Emperor Wu, the county and
prefecture system was applied uniformly throughout the country.
太守(たい・しゅ) Tàishǒu
また郡(ぐん)jùn, county(太守(たい・しゅ)Tàishǒu)・県(けん)Xiàn, prefecture(令(りょう)líng・長(ちょう)cháng, chief)の下に郷(きょう)xiāng(三老(さんろう)sānlǎo, three elders)・里(り)lǐ(里正(りせい)Lǐ zhèng)が置かれ、これを郷里制(ごうりせい)(きょうりせい)xiānglǐzhì the home village systemといった。
In addition, under the county (deputy
governor) and prefecture (rei/chief), go (three elders) and sato (sato) were
placed, and this was called the home village system.
武帝(ぶ・てい) Emperor Wu (在位前141年~前87年)
郷挙里選(きょう・きょ・り・せん) Xiāng Jǔ
Lǐ xuǎn, the election of the towns and villages (郷より挙げ、里から選ぶ)、略して選挙(せんきょ) xuǎnjǔ, election
官吏登用法 Government Official Appointment Law
(選挙 Election)
前漢(ぜんかん)時代Former Han dynastyには官吏(かんり)government officialsの任用appointmentは地方の自治local autonomyを重んじ、郷(きょう)xiāng・里(り)lǐの有力者influential peopleが地方長官local governorと合議の上で推薦recommendedした。
In the Former Han dynasty, local autonomy
was valued in the appointment of government officials, and influential people
in the township and village recommended it after consulting with the local
governor.
これを郷挙里選(きょう・きょ・り・せん)Xiāng Jǔ Lǐ xuǎn, the election of the towns and villages(郷より挙げ、里から選ぶ)、略して選挙(せんきょ)xuǎnjǔ,
electionといった。
This was called the township election, or
election for short.
後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynastyには儒学(じゅがく)Confucianismが盛んになり、孝廉(こうれん)Xiaolian・明経(みょうぎょう)Ming
Jingなど多くの科が置かれ、地方長官local
governorsから選ばれて中央へ集まった人材は形式的な試験を受けて採否が決定された。
Confucianism became popular in the Later Han
Dynasty, and many departments such as Koran and Ming Jing were established, and
people who were selected by local governors and gathered at the central
government were given formal examinations to determine whether they were hired
or not.
漢(かん)(ハン)代Han Dynastyの官吏登用法method of appointing government officialsは他選本位である点が、後世の科挙(かきょ)kējǔ, Imperial
examinationと異なる。
The Han Dynasty's method of appointing
government officials is different from later imperial examinations in that it
was based on other elections.
漢(かん)(ハン) Hanの徴兵制(ちょうへいせい) yìwù bīngyìzhì, Conscription
兵制 Military system
漢(かん)(ハン)の軍隊Han armyは原則として徴兵制(ちょうへいせい)yìwù bīngyìzhì, Conscriptionで、民衆は23歳より55歳に至るまで2年間の兵役(へいえき)military serviceに服した。
As a general rule, the Han army was
conscripted, and the commoners served for two years from age 23 to age 55.
兵役(へいえき)military serviceに当ったものは1年間は国都national capitalに上がり、天子(てんし)Tiānzǐ, Heavenly Sonsの儀杖(ぎじょう)ceremonial staffや宮城(きゅうじょう)Imperial Palaceの守護the guardianとなった(正卒(せいそつ)zhēngzú)。
Those who served in the military were sent
to the national capital for one year and served as the ceremonial staff of the
Tenshi or the guardian of Miyagi (regular graduate).
他の1年間は辺境守備frontier defenseに当った(戍卒(じゅそつ)shùzú)。
For the other year, he was in charge of the
frontier defense (shoso).
代田法(だいでんほう) dàitiánfǎ
産業の発達 Industrial development
漢(かん)(ハン)Han Dynastyの統一reunificationにより農村秩序rural orderが回復されると、社会の生産力productivity
of societyは日一日と発展した。
After the reunification of the Han Dynasty
restored rural order, the productivity of society grew day by day.
武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wuのとき、一年ごとにうねと溝のところを代える新農法new farming
method(代田法(だいでんほう)dàitiánfǎ)が創始されるようになり、耕作・草取り・種播きなどの農具の進歩Advances in
agricultural tools、水利灌漑の発達development of water irrigationもあって、農業生産力Agricultural productivityは大いに高まった。
During the reign of Emperor Wu, a new
farming method (the Shirota method) was instituted in which the ridges and
grooves were replaced every year. Advances in agricultural tools such as
cultivation, weeding, and seed sowing, as well as the development of water
irrigation, Agricultural productivity has greatly increased.
塩salt・鉄ironを専売制(せんばいせい) Government monopoly
手工業handicraftでも、製鉄・製塩iron and salt manufacturingは官営事業government-run businessesとして多数の刑徒prisoners・奴隷slaves・徭役労働者forced laborersを使用して盛んになった。
In the handicraft industry, iron and salt
manufacturing flourished as government-run businesses using a large number of
prisoners, slaves, and forced laborers.
絹織物silk fabrics・漆器lacquerwareなどの発達も目ざましかった。
The development of silk fabrics and
lacquerware was also remarkable.
前漢(ぜんかん) Former Han Dynasty (西漢(せいかん) Western Han Dynasty)
これら諸産業industriesの発達につれて、商業commerceは全国的に行われるようになり、長安(ちょうあん)(チャンアン)Changan・洛陽(らくよう)(ルオヤン)Luoyang・成都(せいと)(チェンドゥ)Chengdu・邯鄲(かんたん)(ハンダン)Handanなどは商業の中心地centers of commerceとして栄えた。
As these industries developed, commerce came
to take place nationwide, and Changan, Luoyang, Chengdu, and Handan prospered
as centers of commerce.
五銖銭(ごしゅ・せん) Wu Zhu
cash coin
漢(かん)(ハン)初In the early Han dynastyには、民間で貨幣を鋳造minting coinsして富を築いた者も出たが、武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wuはこれを禁止し、官鋳の五銖銭(ごしゅ・せん)Wu Zhu cash coinを通用させた。
In the early Han dynasty, some people built
their wealth by minting coins privately, but Emperor Wu forbade this and
allowed government-cast Wuxi coins to be used.
鉄製農具 iron farming tools
豪族の台頭 Rise of the Nobility
春秋戦国時代(しゅんじゅう・せんごく・じだい)the Spring
and Autumn and Warring States periods以来、農業生産力agricultural productivityの発展developmentにより、古い村落共同体old village communitiesが崩れ、商人merchants・地方有力者local influential peopleによる大土地所有large land ownershipが進み、この傾向は漢(かん)(ハン)代Han Dynastyにはますます著しくなった。
Since the Spring and Autumn and Warring
States periods, the development of agricultural productivity has led to the
collapse of old village communities and the promotion of large land ownership
by merchants and local influential people.
そこで政府governmentは土地landと奴隷slavesの数を制限しようとして、限田策plan to limit the number of rice fieldsを実施したが効果はあがらず、有力者influential
peopleは大土地large tracts
of landと多数の隷属民a large
number of slavesを使役し、地方豪族local ruling familiesとして大きな勢力great powerをもつようになった。
Therefore, the government tried to limit the
land and the number of slaves by implementing a plan to limit the number of
rice fields, but it was not effective, and the influential people used large
tracts of land and a large number of slaves, and came to have great power as
local ruling families.
彼らは前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynasty末から台頭し後漢(ごかん)Later Han dynasty時代には名門prestigious familyとして尊敬され、更に開墾land reclamationなどにより耕地arable landを拡張した。
They emerged from the end of the Former Han
Dynasty and were respected as a prestigious family during the Later Han
dynasty, and further expanded their arable land through land reclamation.
郷挙里選(きょう・きょ・り・せん) Xiāng Jǔ
Lǐ xuǎn, the election of the towns and villages (郷より挙げ、里から選ぶ)、略して選挙(せんきょ) xuǎnjǔ, election
ことに後漢(ごかん)は、この豪族this ruling familyの支持・協力によって成立したので、豪族the ruling familyの勢力the powerはますます強くなった。
In particular, the Later Han Dynasty was
established with the support and cooperation of this ruling family, so the
power of the ruling family grew stronger.
しかも漢(かん)(ハン)代Han dynastyには、官吏government officialsを地方長官local governorsの推薦recommendationによって任用したため(郷挙里選(きょう・きょ・り・せん)Xiāng Jǔ Lǐ xuǎn, the election of the towns and villages(郷より挙げ、里から選ぶ))、豪族local ruling
familiesは官吏government
officialsとなって地方政治local
politicsをも左右した。
Moreover, in the Han dynasty, government
officials were appointed based on the recommendation of local governors
(employment of local governors), so local ruling families became government
officials and influenced local politics.
農民peasantsは、政府の莫大な軍事費military
expenditures支弁のための過重な負担excessive burdenと軍役military serviceとに疲弊し、また、大土地所有者large land ownersの圧迫を受けて没落し、豪族local ruling familyのもとに走って隷属的農民subservient farmers(佃戸(でんこ)diànhù)になるものが多かった。
The peasants were exhausted by the excessive
burden of the government's military expenditures and the military service. were
many.
The peasants were exhausted by the
government's enormous military expenditures and military service.
In addition, many of them fell into ruin
under the pressure of large land owners, and became subservient farmers
(tsukudado) after joining the local ruling family.
董仲舒(とう・ちゅうじょ) Dong
Zhongshu
漢時代の文化 Han dynasty culture
儒学の成立 Establishment of Confucianism
前漢(ぜんかん)Former Hanの武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wuは、統一国家unified nationの威儀dignityを整え、その支配を強化するため、董仲舒(とう・ちゅうじょ)Dong Zhongshuの公羊学説(くよう・がくせつ)Gongyang Theoryを用いて儒学(じゅがく)Confucianismを官学(かんがく)official studyとした。
Emperor Wu of the Former Han Dynasty adopted
Confucianism as an official study, using Dong Zhongshu's Gongyang Theory, in
order to establish the dignity of a unified nation and strengthen its rule.
五経博士(ごきょう・はかせ) Wǔjīng
bóshì, Doctor of Five Classics
中央の太学(たいがく)Taixue, Greatest Study or Learningに五経博士(ごきょう・はかせ)Wǔjīng bóshì, Doctor of Five Classicsを置き儒教(じゅきょう)Confucianismの経典(けいてん)Jīngdiǎn, scriptures(五経(ごきょう)Wǔjīng, Five
Classics)を講義させ、地方にも学校を作り、儒学的教養Confucian
educationをもって官吏government
officialsの養成を図った。
The Gokyo hakase was assigned to Taigaku in
the center to give lectures on the Confucian scriptures (the Five Classics),
and schools were also built in rural areas to train government officials with
Confucian education.
光武帝(こうぶ・てい) Emperor Guangwu (劉秀(りゅうしゅう) Liu Xiu) (在位25年~57年)
更に、後漢(ごかん)Later Hanの光武帝(こうぶてい)Emperor Guangwuの保護・奨励によって儒学(じゅがく)Confucianismは完全に他の諸子百家(しょし・ひゃっか)zhūzǐ bǎijiā, Hundred Schools of Thoughtの学を圧倒して、長く中国思想Chinese
thoughtの主流mainstreamとなった。
Furthermore, under the protection and
encouragement of Emperor Guangwu of the Later Han, Confucianism completely
overwhelmed the learning of other 100 families and became the mainstream of
Chinese thought for a long time.
こうして国家の学問national academic fieldとしての地位を独占した儒学(じゅがく)Confucianismは、それ以上の発展をすることなく固定化し、秦(しん)(チン)Qinの始皇帝(し・こうてい)(シ・ファンディ)Shi Huangdi(the first emperor of a unified China)の焚書(ふんしょ)Burning of booksによって失われた古典classicsの復旧restoreとその注釈commentに努めた。
In this way, Confucianism, which monopolized
the position as a national academic field, was fixed without further
development, and endeavored to restore and comment on the classics lost due to
the burning of books by the first emperor of Qin.
馬融(ば・ゆう) Ma
Rong
鄭玄(じょう・げん) Zheng
Xuan
これを訓詁学(くんこ・がく)xùngǔxué, the study of preceptsといい、後漢(ごかん)Later Hanの馬融(ば・ゆう)Ma Rong・鄭玄(じょう・げん)Zheng Xuanらによって大成された。
This is known as the study of precepts, and
was perfected by Ma Yuu and Zheng Xuan of the Later Han Dynasty.
許慎(きょ・しん) Xu
Shen
また後漢(ごかん)Later Hanの許慎(きょ・しん)Xu Shenは古典(こてん)classicsを読むために必要な『説文解字(せつもん・かいじ)Shuowen Jiezi』という字典(じてん)dictionaryを作った。
In addition, Xu Shin of the Later Han
created a dictionary called "Setsumon Kaiji", which is necessary for
reading the classics.
こうして中国古典学Chinese classical studiesの基礎foundationが確立した。
Thus, the foundation of Chinese classical
studies was established.
訓詁学(くんこ・がく) xùngǔxué,
the study of precepts
補足supplementary
explanation
訓詁学(くんこ・がく) Xunguxue, the study of precepts
経典(けいてん)Jīngdiǎn, scripturesの解釈interpretation・文字charactersの校定(こうてい)proofreadingを中心とする学問study。
A study centered on the interpretation of
scriptures and proofreading of characters.
漢(かん)(ハン)代Han dynastyには経典(けいてん)Jīngdiǎn, scripturesのテキストに漢(かん)(ハン)代Han dynastyの隷書(れいしょ)Lìshū, Clerical scriptで書かれたもの(今文(きんぶん)New Text Confucianism)と、秦(しん)(チン)Qin以前の古い字体old styleで書かれたもの(古文(こぶん)Tadpole script)とがあり、どちらがよいか議論された。
In the Han Dynasty, there were two types of
scripture texts, one written in the Han dynasty clerical script (Kinbun) and
the other written in an old style before the Qin dynasty (Kobun), and it was
debated which one was better.
司馬遷(しば・せん) Sima Qian
班固(はん・こ) Ban Gu
歴史学の成立 Formation of historical studies
漢(かん)(ハン)代Han dynastyには統一国家が完成し、漢民族(かんみんぞく)Han Chineseの勢力が四方にひろがったので、民族意識が高まり、すぐれた歴史書が著された。
In the Han Dynasty, a unified nation was
completed, and the influence of the Han people spread in all directions.
なかでも前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynastyの武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wu時代の司馬遷(しば・せん)Sima Qianの『史記(しき)Shiji』130巻と後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynastyの和帝(わ・てい)Emperor He時代の班固(はん・こ)Ban Guの『漢書(かんじょ)Book of Han』100巻は、ともに紀伝体(きでんたい)jìzhuàntǐ,
biographical styleで書かれ中国正史Chinese official historyの代表作となっている。
Among them, the 130-volume
"History" by Sima Qian in the era of Emperor Wu of the Former Han and
the 100-volume "Book of Han" by Han Gu in the era of Emperor Wa in
the Later Han, both written in biographical style, are representative works of
Chinese official history.
李陵(り・りょう) Li
Ling
補足supplementary
explanation
司馬遷(しば・せん) Sima Qian
前145年ごろ~前86年ごろ。
145 BC to 86 BC.
前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynastyの歴史家historian。
Former Han historian.
武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wuに仕えて太史令(たい・し・れい)tài
shǐ lìngとなる。
Served Emperor Wu and became Taishirei.
友人の李陵(り・りょう)Li Lingが匈奴(きょうど)(ションヌゥ)Xiongnuに降ったことを弁護して宮刑(きゅうけい)castration(断種の刑)に処せられたが、父・司馬談(しば・たん)Sima Tanの遺業legacyである歴史historyに没頭して『史記(しき)Shiji』を完成した。
He defended his friend Li Ling's surrender
to the Xiongnu and was sentenced to imprisonment (sterilization), but he
devoted himself to his father's legacy of history and completed
"Shiki".
二十四史(にじゅうし・し) Twenty-Four
Histories
補足supplementary
explanation
正史(せいし) Zhèngshǐ, Orthodox
Histories, Official History
中国Chinaの歴代王朝the
successive dynastiesを代表する歴史historyで、まとめて二十四史(にじゅうし・し)Twenty-Four Historiesと呼ばれる。
It is a history that represents the
successive dynasties of China, and is collectively called the 24th history or
the 25th history.
皇帝emperorの事績achievementsを中心とした本紀(ほんぎ)běnjì, Basic
Annalsと個人の伝記personal
biographiesを書いた列伝(れつでん)lièzhuàn, Ranked Biographiesなどからできているので紀伝体(きでん・たい)jìzhuàntǐ, biographical styleと呼ばれる。
It is called kidentai because it consists of
honki, which focuses on the achievements of the emperor, and retsuden, which
contains personal biographies.
また『史記(しき)Shiji』が五帝(ご・てい)Five Emperorsから前漢(ぜんかん)Former Han Dynastyの武帝(ぶ・てい)Emperor Wu時代まで書かれた通史(つうし)Tōngshǐ, Comprehensive historyであるのに対して、『漢書(かんじょ)Book of Han』は前漢(ぜんかん)時代Former Han
eraのことだけ書かれた断代史(だんだい・し)Duàndàishǐ, Dynastic historyである。
Also, while "Shiji" is a
comprehensive history written from the five emperors to the era of Emperor Wu
in the Former Han dynasty, "Kansho" is a complete history written
only for the Former Han era.
紀伝体(きでん・たい) jìzhuàntǐ,
biographical style
補足supplementary
explanation
紀伝体(きでん・たい) jìzhuàntǐ, biographical
style
皇帝emperorの事績achievementsを中心とした本紀(ほんぎ)běnjì, Basic
Annalsと、個人individualsの伝記biographiesを書いた列伝(れつでん)lièzhuàn,
Ranked Biographies、および表tables・志motivesなどから構成される歴史記述historical descriptionの体裁format。
The format of the historical description
consists of the honki, which focuses on the achievements of the emperor, and
the biographies of individuals, as well as tables and motives.
老子(ろう・し) Lao Zi
荘子(そう・し) Zhuang Zi
張角(ちょう・かく) Zhang Jue
張陵(ちょう・りょう) Zhang
Ling
道教(どうきょう)の源流 Origin of Taoism
社会不安social unrestが激しくなった後漢(ごかん)Later Han
Dynasty末ごろ、民間信仰folk beliefsを中心に老荘思想(ろうそう・しそう)Lao Zhuang thought, Taoist philosophy・五行思想(ごぎょう・しそう)Wuxing philosophy・讖緯説(しんい・せつ)Chenwei theory(予言説(よげん・せつ)prophecy theory)などが結びついて、張角(ちょう・かく)Zhang Jueが太平道(たいへい・どう)Way of the Taipingや張陵(ちょう・りょう)Zhang Lingの五斗米道(ごとべい・どう)Way of the Five Pecks of Riceなどの秘密宗教secret religionsが生まれ、生活に苦しむ民間among the poor peopleにひろまった。
Around the end of the Later Han Dynasty,
when social unrest intensified, Lao Zhuang thought, five elements thought, and
prophetic theory (prophecy theory) were combined mainly with folk beliefs, and
secret religions such as Zhang Jiao's Taiping Road and Zhang Daoling's Wutomai
Road were developed. It was born and spread among the poor people.
ときには暴動の中心the center of riotsとなり、また後世中国社会Chinese societyに流行popularした道教(どうきょう)の源流the source of Taoismとなった。
It was sometimes the center of riots, and
also became the source of Taoism, which became popular in later Chinese
society.
讖緯説(しんい・せつ) Chenwei
theory
補足supplementary
explanation
讖緯説(しんい・せつ) Chenwei theory
(予言説(よげん・せつ) prophecy theory)
讖(しん)Chenは予言prophecyで、緯(い)wei(よこ糸weft)は経(たて糸warp)に対する語で経書(けいしょ)scripturesを補うものとされた。
讖 is a
prophecy, and woo (weft) is a word for warp (warp) and supplements the
scriptures.
王莽(おう・もう)(ワン・メン) Wang Mang (在位8年~23年)
王莽(おう・もう)(ワン・メン)Wang
Mangは帝位throneを奪うときにこれを利用し、後漢(ごかん)Later Han
Dynastyの光武帝(こうぶ・てい)Emperor Guangwuもこれを愛好したので後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynastyに広く流行した。
Wang Mang used it when he usurped the
throne, and Emperor Guangwu of the Later Han also liked it, so it became
popular in the Later Han.
太平道(たいへい・どう) Way of the Taiping
五斗米道(ごとべい・どう) Way of
the Five Pecks of Rice
補足supplementary
explanation
太平道(たいへい・どう) Way of the Taipingと
五斗米道(ごとべい・どう) Way of the Five Pecks of
Rice
ともに祈祷prayersやまじないspellsによって病気を直すcuring illnessesと称して信徒believersを集めた。
Both gathered believers under the pretext of
curing illnesses through prayers and spells.
五斗米道(ごとべい・どう)Wǔ Dǒu Mǐ Dào, Way of the
Five Pecks of Riceは病人the sickが直ると五斗Wǔ Dǒu(わが国Japanの5升5 sho)の米riceを出させたのでこう呼んだ。
It was called five dou rice road because
when the sick were cured, five sho (5 sho in Japan) of rice was served.
賦(ふ) Fu, rhapsody
篆書(てんしょ) Seal
script
楷書(かいしょ) kǎishū,
Regular script (左)
隷書(れいしょ) Lìshū,
Clerical script (右)
文学 Literature
漢(かん)(ハン)代Han dynastyには 『史記(しき)Shiji』 の名文famous
sentencesに代表されるような散文proseが発達するとともに、賦(ふ)Fu, rhapsodyと呼ばれる美文体beautiful
writing styleが成立した。
In the Han Dynasty, along with the
development of prose as typified by the famous sentences in "Shiki,"
a beautiful writing style called Fu was established.
また、文字も秦(しん)(チン)代Qin dynastyの篆書(てんしょ)Seal script(周(しゅう)(ジョウ)末の金文(きんぶん)Chinese
bronze inscriptionsを起源として、戦国時代(せんごくじだい)に発達して整理され、公式書体とされた書体を指す。)に替わって筆写に便利な隷書(れいしょ)Lìshū,
Clerical scriptが普及した。
In addition, clerical script, which is
convenient for handwriting, became popular in place of the seal script of the
Qin dynasty.
こうして、今日の漢字Chinese characters(楷書(かいしょ)kǎishū,
Regular script)と大差ない字体character
styleがこのころ形成された。
In this way, a character style that was not
much different from today's Chinese characters (kaisho) was formed around this
time.
竹簡(ちくかん) Bamboo
slips
紙の発明 The invention of paper
蔡倫(さい・りん) Cai
Lun
紙の発明 The invention of paper
美術・工芸Arts and
Crafts
これまで中国Chinaで書写writingに用いられていた竹の札Bamboo tags(木簡(もっかん)Wooden slips・竹簡(ちくかん)Bamboo slips)は重くて不便heavy and inconvenientであり、絹silkは高価expensiveなため不適unsuitableであった。
Bamboo tags (wood strips and bamboo strips)
that have been used for writing in China so far are heavy and inconvenient, and
silk is expensive and unsuitable.
蔡倫(さい・りん) Cai
Lun
後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynastyの蔡倫(さい・りん)Cai
Lunは、ぼろ布ragsなど廃物waste
materialsを利用して、紙を発明inventing
paperすることに成功succeededした。
Cai Lun of the Later Han dynasty succeeded
in inventing paper by using waste materials such as rags.
その後しだいに改良されて、今日のような紙the paper we see todayになったのである。
After that, it was gradually improved to
become the paper we see today.
紙の発明The invention
of paperは、中国Chinaにおける文化cultureの発達developmentに大きな貢献contributedをしただけでなく、やがて西アジアWest Asia・北アフリカNorth AfricaをへてヨーロッパEuropeに伝わり、世界文化史上the history
of world cultureに重大な意義great significanceをもつに至った。
The invention of paper not only contributed
greatly to the development of culture in China, but eventually spread to Europe
via West Asia and North Africa, and came to have great significance in the
history of world culture.
武氏祠(ぶし・し) Wǔshìcí, Wu Family Shrinesの画像石(がぞうせき)Hua-xiang-shiに描かれた黄帝(こう・てい) Yellow Emperor
産業の発達development
of industryに伴って絹織物silk fabrics・漆器lacquerware・銅鏡bronze mirrors・画像石(がぞうせき)Hua-xiang-shiなどの製作技術manufacturing techniquesが進歩した。
Along with the development of industry,
manufacturing techniques for silk fabrics, lacquerware, bronze mirrors, and
image stones advanced.
これらの工芸品craftsは、モンゴルMongoliaのノイン・ウラNoin Ura、朝鮮Koreaの楽浪郡(らくろう・ぐん)Lelang Commanderyの遺跡relicsを初め、近年は中国各地various parts of Chinaから発掘された多くの遺物relicsによって明らかにされている。
These crafts have been revealed by many
relics excavated from various parts of China in recent years, including Noin
Ura in Mongolia and Nakrang in Korea.
張衡(ちょう・こう) Zhang
Heng
張仲景(ちょう・ちゅうけい) Zhang
Zhongjing
華陀(か・だ) Hua
Tuo
科学 Science
また、後漢(ごかん)Later Han Dynastyの科学者scientist張衡(ちょう・こう)Zhang Hengによって、天体観測用の機械astronomical
observation equipmentや地震計seismometersが発明inventedされ、暦法(れきほう)the calendar systemの改正revisionに貢献した。
Later Han scientist Zhang Heng invented
astronomical observation equipment and seismometers, contributing to the
revision of the calendar system.
医学Medicineも進歩し、後漢(ごかん)時代Later Han dynastyには張仲景(ちょう・ちゅうけい)Zhang Zhongjingが 『傷寒論(しょうかん・ろん)Shanghan Lun』 を著し、華陀(か・だ)Hua Tuoは外科手術surgical operationsに麻酔薬anestheticsを用いたと伝えられる。
Medicine also advanced, and it is said that
Zhang Zhongjing wrote "Suffering Cold" in the Later Han dynasty, and
that Hua Tuo used anesthetics for surgical operations.